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CONTRACTOR* CONS^TS
BRICK STRUCTURES
The quality of the materials used in
the manufacture of this hook is gov-
erned by continued postwar shortages.
BRICK
STRUCTURES
~ 1
HOW TO BUILD THEM
Practical reference data on materials, design,
and construction methods employed in brick
construction; for contractors, builders, archi-
tects, engineers, and students. An authorita-
tive manual on brick masonry, with particu-
lar reference to the structural uses of brick in
residences and other small buildings
Revised and edited by
RALPH P. STODDARD
Eleventh Edition
THIRD IMPRESSION
New York London
McGraw-Hill Book Company, In c.
1040
BRICK STRUCTURES
Copyright, 1946, by the
McGraw-Hill Book Company, Inc.
PRINTED IN THE UNITED STATES OF AMERICA
All rights reserved. This hook , or
parts thereof , may not he reproduced
in any form without permission of
the publishers.
FOREWORD
This book, originally written by William Carver, architect,
and reviewed by the late David Knickerbacker Boyd, F.A.I.A.,
was first published in 1920 by The Brick Manufacturers Associa-
tion of America. Its original title was “Brick How to Build
and Estimate.”
Nine editions of the book were published, and with each
reprinting the text was revised and improved under competent
authorship. With the tenth edition the text was extensively
revised and brought up to date by the architects and engineers
of Taylor, Rogers & Bliss, Inc., under the direction of Col. L. B.
Lent, chief engineer of The Brick Manufacturers Association at
that time.
This is the eleventh edition of the book, further revised and
modernized for publication in permanent form by the McGraw-
Hill Book Company.
PURPOSE OF THIS BOOK
The workmen who constructed the Pyramids of Egypt lived in
houses built of secondhand brick taken from structures erected
untold ages before. So write the investigators of the antiquity
of building materials.
Brick has been used in all manner of structures throughout the
known history of the world. Like stone, it is an eternal material,
available and adaptable to many uses in construction today.
Brick possesses many qualities essential t o a successful building
material. A well-built wall of brick is highly fire resisting,
each brick having been created in fire of great intensity. Brick
is natural clay burned to practical inertia — unchangeable.
In the burning process chemicals contained in the clay give
to the surface of the brick a pleasing color and texture. The
color varies with the clay used, the position in the kiln in which
it is burned, the fuel used in burning, and other variables
in the manufacturing process. Such natural coloring is of course
permanent. It often is said that the beauty of the brick wall is
enhanced by exposure to the elements and aging.
The small size of the standard brick makes it a flexible material.
It may be used to produce any desired practical thickness of wall
and is adaptable to architectural design. These small, self-
decorated units are to the architect what modeling clay is to the
sculptor, or pigments to the painter. They stimulate the artistry
of the architect because with brick he can express something more
than form.
The engineer whose first consideration is strength and stability
finds brickwork, plain or reinforced as needed, meeting his
requirements and at the same time giving everlasting good
appearance.
Brickwork may be easily altered when changes become neces-
sary so that structures may be extended with perfect matching of
exterior appearances.
Availability is another advantage of brick, because it is made
practically everywhere in the United States. This convenience
vii
Vlll
PURPOSE OF THIS BOOK
results in low cost, because it eliminates heavy transportation
charges.
Although this book is devoted largely to the proper use of
brick in residential and other small structures employing the
load-bearing wall, the material is equally adaptable to large
buildings as the facing material of steel or concrete structures.
As a load-bearing wall, brick is particularly advantageous for
schools, hospitals, institutions, and all kinds of industrial con-
struction. It also is widely used in public works, sewers, bridges,
tunnels, subways, retaining walls, walks, and pavements.
Brick is especially desirable for farm and other rural buildings
where fire protection is inadequate.
The information in this book, although especially prepared
for use by the builder of homes and all ordinary jobs not in the
engineering field, applies to load-bearing walls suitable for houses,
small apartments, and other multiple dwellings, garages, small
office and industrial buildings, all farm structures, garden walls,
walks, outdoor fireplaces, and many ornamental uses.
Preceding editions of the book have been widely used in colleges
and schools in connection with the study of architecture and
engineering. It is a reference work for the architect and engineer
since it deals with the collateral materials used with brick to
complete the masonry. It includes tables useful in estimating
brickwork quantities, costs, and weights.
Construction details are given for both solid and hollow walls.
In compiling this book the author has attempted to avoid
technical terms and reports and to make the information under-
standable to the average contractor, home builder, realtor,
student, and even the layman who, as a prospective building
owner, may be interested in the subject.
Cleveland, Ohio,
January, 1946.
Ralph P. Stoddard.
CONTENTS
Page
Foreword v
Purpose of This Book vii
Chapter
I. Structural Properties of Brick and Brickwork
Brick 1
Brick Masonry 6
II. Building Brick Masonry
Materials Used in Brick Masonry 14
Bonds in Brick Masonry 22
Joints in Brickwork 30
Preventing Wet Walls and Efflorescence 38
Practical Construction Equipment 42
Practical Notes on Procedure 44
Brick Construction in Freezing Weather 47
III. Structural Uses of Brick Masonry
Practical Reference Data on Design and Workmanship in
Typical Structural Applications of Brick in Buildings. . 51
Footings, Foundations, and Basement Details 51
Types of Bearing and Non-bearing Walls 59
Building Codes Should Permit 8-in. Walls for Residences. . 63
Walls for Residences 63
Standards of Workmanship 63
Working with Other Trades 66
Building Cavity Walls of Brick 69
General Construction Data on Hollow Walls 70
Construction of Rolok-Bak Walls 76
Construction of All-Rolok Walls 82
Economy Walls: 4-in. Pier and Panel Type 84
Reinforced Brickwork for Structural Purposes 88
IV. Construction Other Than Exterior Walls
Fireproofing Structural Steel Members with Brick Masonry. 93
Fire Walls and Party Walls 94
Fire Stopping in Brick and Frame Buildings 95
Parapet Walls 97
Construction of Openings in Brick Walls 99
Brick as Foundation for Stucco 107
IX
X CONTENTS
Chapter
r> • i tt Page
Brick Veneer on Frame Construction 109
Design and Construction of Chimneys and Fireplaces . ... 112
Where to Use Flashings and Calking 122
Bearing and Non-bearing Soundproof Partitions 126
Furring and Plastering on Brick Walls 128
Porches, Walks, and Garden Structures of Brick 131
Suggestions for Decorative Treatment of Brickwork .... 141
Barbecue for Outdoor Living 142
Reference Tables for Designing and Estimating
Brickwork
Height of Solid and Ideal Brickwork by Courses 160
Quantities of Brick and Mortar in Footings, Piers, and Chim-
neys • • • 161
Number of Facing Brick in Solid Walls 162
Average Weight of Solid Brick Walls 163
Brick Quantities in All Bonds 164
Quantities of Mortar Materials 166
BRICK STRUCTURES
CHAPTER I
STRUCTURAL PROPERTIES OF BRICK
AND BRICKWORK
BRICK
Basic facts about brick and brick masonry are presented in
this chapter, as a foundation for the practical design and con-
struction information that follows in the subsequent sections.
For thousands of years the term “brick” has been used to
designate a building unit of clay or shale. This is in accordance
with the definitions of common and architectural dictionaries and
with those of authoritative bodies.
When other materials are used to produce a building unit of
the approximate shape and size of brick, the term “brick” should
be suitably qualified.
Composition of Brick. — The raw materials from which brick
are made are the clays and shales found in many localities all
over the world.
Clays and shales are derived from the decomposition of rocks,
such as granite, pegmatite, etc., and those used in the manu-
facture of brick are usually in alluvial (water-borne) deposits.
The combined processes of rock disintegration, erosion, and
alluvial deposit, which have occupied thousands of years of time,
result in a material that is chemically very stable and highly inert.
Clays and shales are chemically composed of a mixture of
aluminosilicic acid (pure clay), free silica (quartz), and small
parts of original decomposed rock.
It is the presence of these rock contents which makes clays and
shales bum into bricks of varying colors and appearances.
The important properties of clays and shales (which are essen-
tially compacted clays), that make them highly desirable as
brick materials are (1) the development of plasticity when mixed
1
2
BRICK STRUCTURES
with water and (2) the hardening under the influence of fire,
which drives off the water content.
Manufacturing methods are largely controlled by the physical
nature of the raw materials.
Whatever the particular methods or equipment used, the
process consists essentially of screening, grinding, washing, and
working the clay to the proper consistency for molding into
bricks, whether done by hand or machine. After drying, the
green bricks are then fired in kilns for several hours at high tem-
peratures, approximating 2000°F. The result is a finished brick.
Types of Brick. — Trade names distinguishing the various types
of brick are derived principally from the manufacturing process
employed.
Three principal methods of forming bricks are (1) putting the
prepared clay into molds — the soft-mud process; (2) forcing the
clay from the orifice of an auger or extrusion machine in a con-
tinuous column and then cutting bricks off the column — the stiff-
mud process; and (3) molding relatively dry cla}^ under high
pressure — the dry-press process.
In the molding process, the inner surface of the mold may be
coated wHh sand — sand-molded — to facilitate getting the brick
out of the mold ; or it may be wetted with water — water-struck.
In the extrusion machine, the column or ribbon of clay is cut
off with wires revolving in a suitable frame. When the
machine produces the smaller 2)4- by 324-in. ribbon and
it is cut off to form the 8-in. dimension, the brick is called “end-
cut”; when the machine produces the wider (8-in.) ribbon and
it is cut to form the 2)4- by 3 24-in. dimension, the brick is known
to the trade as “side-cut.”
The low moisture content in the dry-press process does not
ordinarily require drying before burning.
Common brick , so called, made in various parts of the country
and even from different parts of the same kiln, may have different
colors and surface textures. Some clays and shales burn to a
red color (the more common), but others may burn to darker or
lighter colors and shades, so that an almost endless variety of
colors and textures comprises the production of this country.
Strictly speaking, any brick used in the exposed (outer) face
of brick masonry is a facing brick , but demands and usage have
led to the controlled production of specific surface appearances.
STRUCTURAL PROPERTIES OF BRICK AND BRICKWORK 3
Brick so specially processed goes by the trade name of face
brick.
Properties of Bricks. — The principal properties of brick which
make them superior as building units are (1) strength, (2) fire
resistance, (3) durability, (4) beauty, and (5) satisfactory bond
and performance with mortar. All bricks are quite alike in all
Fig. 2. Part of the 186 full-sized wall panels of brick ready for test at National
Bureau of Standards, Washington, D. C. Testing machine capable of crushing
these panels is in rear center, with one tested panel in place. These walls
represent different grades of brick, different types of walls, and varying grades
of mortar and workmanship. Results of these tests are basis of recommendation
made in this book regarding workmanship in brick masonry.
these properties, except in the first — strength. However, while
the strengths of brick vary over a wide range, they are, on the
average, much higher than other masonry materials.
The Strength of Bricks . — Since brickwork is more commonly
laid to resist compressive stresses (vertical loads), the important
strength of individual bricks is compressive strength.
The usual method of measuring this strength (American
Society for Testing Materials Standard Method) is to test the
brick on its flat side.
4
BRICK STRUCTURES
When so tested, the compressive strengths of individual bricks
may run from about 1,600 lb. per sq. in. (for the underburned or
“salmon” bricks) to well over 20,000 lb. per sq. in. (for the
strongest bricks). Individual samples have tested over 28,000
lb. per sq. in.
The significance of these values may be best appreciated by
comparison. A good grade of concrete (tested as 6- by 12-in.
cylinders) runs from 2,000 to 3,000 lb. per sq. in. (better grades
are stronger, up to about 7,000 lb. per sq. in.); hollow concrete
blocks, with various aggregates, usually are not much strongei
than will meet building code requirements (700 to 800 lb. per
sq. in. of gross area), the best ones rarely going above 1,200 lb.
per sq. in.; hollow tile may run from 1,400 lb. per sq. in. (the
code requirement — tested on end) to nearly 4,000 lb. per sq. in.
The average compressive strength of commercial sand-lime brick
is rarely above 3,000 lb. and the strength of commercial concrete
brick is about 2,000 lb.
It is easily apparent that bricks are much stronger than other
masonry materials, except natural stones, and this holds for the
major part of the brick production of this country. Almost all
bricks are stronger than 3,000 lb. per sq. in.; a large part of our
production is stronger than 5,000 lb., and much of it is better
than 10,000 lb. per sq. in. in compressive strength.
Of less importance or significance in the production or perform-
ance of brick masonry are other brick strengths, such as tensile,
shearing, or flexural (bending) strengths.
After all, in brick masonry, the more important consideration
is the result of combining three important factors: (1) bricks, (2)
mortar, and (3) workmanship.
Absorption Unimportant. — It is unnecessary, therefore, to
describe further or to discuss other structural properties of
individual bricks, except to point out that the effect of absorption
of brick, no matter how measured, has in the past been errone-
ously interpreted. It is not a measure of the ability of brick to
resist water penetration, nor to resist the action of the elements
(weathering), nor any other desirable property of brick masonry,
so far as we now know.
Authority for this statement is found in the 1928 annual report
of the brick committee (C-3) to the A.S.T.M., quoted as follows:
There appears to be a widespread belief that the percentage of absorp-
tion of individual bricks is a governing factor in the ability of brick
STRUCTURAL PROPERTIES OF BRICK AND BRICKWORK 5
masonry to resist moisture penetration. It has been conclusively shown
that such belief is erroneous. On the contrary, a certain amount of
absorption in the brick assists in obtaining a better bond between brick
and mortar and, therefore, a more watertight joint. Any water pene-
tration in brick masonry undoubtedly passes through the mortar joint,
and not through the brick.
Fig. 3. — Testing an 8-in. solid brick wall for load-bearing capacity at National
Bureau of Standards, Washington, D. C. Interior joints in this wall are
unfilled.
If the absorption characteristics of brick from a particular
district are known, then the harder burned bricks from that dis-
trict usually have the lower absorption percentages.
The specifications under which bricks are sometimes purchased
are (1) A.S.T.M. Standard Specification for “ Building Brick —
made from Clay or Shale,” Serial Designation C62-44, and (2)
U. S. Government Master Specification, No. 504, Common (clay)
Brick.
6
BRICK STRUCTURES
BRICK MASONRY
Strength of Brick Masonry. — In plain brick masonry (not
reinforced), compressive strength is the more important strength
property. Hundreds of tests of walls, wallettes, and piers, both
of solid and hollow construction, have furnished ample evidence
of the high strengths of many types of brick masonry structures.
Brickwork is usually amply strong for the purpose, and for
meeting with safety all provisions of the building code, when
built with lime mortar. It is stronger when built with cement-
lime mortar and strongest when built with Portland cement
mortar.
A better grade of workmanship will increase the strength of any
brick masonry, in favorable cases as much as 100 per cent.
Better workmanship consists essentially of filling all joints with
mortar and laying full flat (not grooved) horizontal bed joints.
The following tables represent strength values for brickwork
in walls or piers, under the conditions indicated.
Table 1.— Bureau of Standards Tests— 1926-1928 Brick-wall
Strengths
C.S. = compressive strength, lb. per sq. in.
M.R. = modulus of rupture, lb. per sq. in.
1 : 3 mortar = 1 part cement and 3 parts sand
1:1:6 mortar = 1 part cement, 1 part lime, and 6 parts sand
Brick
strengths
Kind of
wall
Kind of
mortar
Kind of
workmanship
Wall
strength
C.S., 3,280
Solid
1:3
Uninspected
660
M.R., 1,225
Solid
1:1:6
Uninspected
579
C.S., 3,540
Solid
1:3
Inspected
1,133
M.R., 670
Solid
1:1:6
Inspected
947
C.S., 3,410
Solid
1:3
Inspected
1,510
M.R., 820
Solid
1:1:6
Inspected
1,232
Hollow
1:3
Inspected
891*
Hollow
1:1:6
Inspected
781*
C.S., 8,595
Solid
1:3
Inspected
2,712
M.R., 1,550
Solid
1:1:6
Inspected
1,840
Hollow
1:3
Inspected
1,030*
Hollow
11 *
1:1:6
1
Inspected
822*
Table 1 shows average values obtained in tests at the National
Bureau of Standards on nearly 180 full-size wall panels, 9 ft. high,
STRUCTURAL PROPERTIES OF BRICK AND BRICKWORK 7
6 ft. long, and 8 and 12 in. in thickness. These figures reflect
quite accurately what may be expected in actual construction
under similar conditions.
Table 2. — Relations between Strength of Brick and Strength of
Masonry
(Compiled from reports furnished by Department of Commerce
Building Code Committee)
Range of
brick
strengths,
lb. per sq. in.
Average
brick
strength,
lb. per sq. in.
Average
masonry
strength,
lb. per sq. in.
1. Laid in portland cement
1,000-1,500
1,155
407
mortar. Proportions
1 .5 00-2,500
2,110
1,165
f rom 1:1 to 1:6 (cement
2,500-3.500
3,120
1,010
to sand) with not over 0. 15
3.500-4,500
4,000
1,315
parts of lime.
4,500-5,500
5,020
1,390
5,500-6,500
5,660
1,450
6,500-7,500
6,814
1,715
7,500-8,000
7,880
1,895
8 , 000 or over
11,650
2,700
2. Laid in cement-lime or
1,000-1,500
1,000
602
natural cement mortar
1,500-2,500
none
none
(including all mortars
2,500-3,500
3,290
763
having 0.25 or more parts
3,500-4,500
4,050
1,720
of lime).
4,500-5,500
5,428*
1,523*
5,500-6,500
5,808*
1,517*
6,500-7,500
6,547
1,665
7,500-8,000
over 8,000
13,300
2,075
3. Laid in lime mortar.
Under 1 , 500
1,110
307
1,500-2,500
1,735
221
2,500-3,500
3,130
408
3,500-4,500
3 , 960
540
4,500-5,500
5,240
577
5,500-6,500
5,770
660
6,500-7,500
6.620
925
7,500-8,000
7,860
906
over 8,000
12,450
1,460
* One test only.
That results obtained in the Bureau of Standards tests (re-
ported in full in Research Paper 108) are not exceptional is proved
by a study of the test results tabulated and reported by the
Department of Commerce Building Code Committee. This
8
BRICK STRUCTURES
tabulation shows the results of 700 tests on masonry, 454 of which
were made in the United States, most of them on brick piers but
a few on brick walls. They comprised tests on masonry of brick
and sand-lime and concrete brick.
Fig. 4. A series of test panels with all joints filled, ready for testing. This
type of workmanship produces maximum strength.
For easy reference, the average results on masonry of brick (clay
or shale) are tabulated (Table 2) in such form as to exhibit the
resulting masonry strengths for a wide range of brick strengths,
and for the use of the three more common kinds of mortar.
While all these test results are stated as averages, it is quite
evident that a fairly uniform straight-line relation exists between
STRUCTURAL PROPERTIED OF BRICK AND BRICKWORK 9
the flat compressive strength of brick and the strength of the
masonry, for each kind of mortar. The influence of inspected
workmanship is to raise wall-strength values in every case.
Fire Resistance of Brick Masonry. — Years of experience have
tested the fire resistance of brick masonry in all parts of the world,
including several great conflagrations. No material has a better
performance record than brickwork, either as walls, piers, or
floor arches or as protection of other structural members. The
testimony of trained investigators for the insurance bodies, which
may be found in their reports and in the technical literature on
the subject, completely substantiates this statement.
Methods of fire testing building construction and materials
have been promulgated by the A.S.T.M. (serial designation
C19-26T) in which results are stated as hourly ratings, during
which the material or “assembly” ( a brick wall, for example)
will meet the provisions of the specification. These provisions
briefly, measure the ability of the material to carry working
loads and to prevent the transmission of temperature to a
dangerous degree.
Brickwork Fire-resistance Ratings. — The specific fire resistance
offered by brickwork, under a variety of types, thicknesses, and
construction conditions, is given in National Bureau of Standards
Report of Fire Tests on Brick Masonry.
Sufficient for our purpose are the ratings recommended by the
National Board of Fire Underwriters. They are quoted as
follows:
Classifications Rating, Hr.
4-in. Interior partitions. Non-bearing 1
8-in. Interior or exterior walls. Non-bearing with incom-
bustible structural members, framed in 5
Bearing, with combustible structural members,
framed in 2
12-in. Interior or exterior walls. Non-bearing or bearing.
Not less than 9
Resistance to Weather.— This term more often refers to water
penetration, or “leaky walls,” as some call it. More often than
not, it is erroneously assumed that any water coming into an out-
side brick wall comes through the brick. In most cases this
would be impossible, even during severe storms. Careful
examination of many structures and a considerable amount of
laboratory research confirm this. Even the softer and under-
10
BRICK STRUCTURES
burned bricks do not absorb or pass water fast enough to account
for some conditions observed.
Water may find its way through the mortar joints, but more
often it gains entrance to the wall around improperly set window
and door frames and into improperly built or coped parapet walls.
Idle methods of construction that will prevent water penetra-
tion are discussed in detail in Chapter II.
Suffice it to say that properly built brick masonry is practically
impervious to the severest storms, as is evidenced by the hundreds
of examples of all kinds of buildings in all kinds of climates all
over the world.
Durability or Permanence. — There are no accepted laboratory
tests by which we can measure or predict the probable life of any
masonry material. Long-time exposure in actual structures is
the only reliable test; by such a measure, brickwork has no
superior. Repeated freezing and thawing tests are thought to
be a fair measure of weather resistance.
Bricks taken from the uncovered ruins of the ancient city of
Ur in Chaldea are in perfect condition, and these bricks are
known to have been made and put in place more than 5,000 years
ago. The brickwork in many buildings abroad, which are several
hundred years old, is practically as good as the day it was built;
even in this country in many of our older structures the brick-
work has long withstood the ravages of time and the elements and
has preserved our historical buildings to their present state of
perfection.
The very nature of the raw material from which bricks are
made and the processes of manufacture produce an inherent
quality of permanence.
Brick in sewers and other underground structures must with-
stand the most severe exposures, including the forces of erosion
and corrosion, and no material has a better record than brick for
durability under these severe conditions.
Thermal Resistance— In considering the thermal or heat
resistance of building or wall materials, one should have a fun-
damental knowledge of this somewhat complex subject.
I he transmission of heat through any material depends on
four principal factors, viz., the character of the material, its thick-
ness, the character of the surface (smooth or rough) and the
velocity of the air across the outer surfaces.
STRUCTURAL PROPERTIES OF BRICK AND BRICKWORK II
Some tables show only the internal conductivity of a 1-in.
thickness, omitting the surface conductivity; some tables show
both internal and surface conductivity; some tables show both
internal and surface conductivity, but for only a standard 1-in.
thickness and some show the total conductivity (air to air) for
the material or a combination of materials, such as a brick wall
or a brick and tile wall.
Heat transmission at high temperatures (as in a fire) is quite
different than at ordinary temperatures; one cannot be deduced
from the other.
The only tables with which we need be concerned are those
showing total conductivity of the material; or combination of
materials (the assembly) for the commercial thickness or the
actual thickness of the particular construction or material as sold
for ordinary use.
Some advertisements sa} T that a certain insulating material has
eight times the resistance of brick, but this means 1 in. of the
material as compared to 1 in. of brick. And even this is not
always true. The material ordinarily used for residential insula-
tion is often less than 3^ -in. thick.
Therefore, a comparison of actual constructions is the only
fair one. An 8-in. brick wall should be compared to an 8-in.
block, for instance, or an 8-in. brick wall to the usual wood wall
construction.
But masonry walls and wood walls are not all alike, nor are
their respective heat resistances all alike. Figures given in most
tables are derived chiefly from tests of particular constructions,
but the variation in specific heat resistance is not as great as
variations in strength.
The infiltration or leakage of air through walls is sometimes a
source of heat loss. Tests show that the infiltration of air
through a plastered brick wall is negligible (s eeA.S.H .V .E. Guide ,
1931, for comparative values).
Additions are constantly being made to our knowledge of
specific conductances or resistances, so that the present tables
reflect only the present state of knowledge.
Conductance is scientifically stated as the number of British
thermal units (B.t.u.) which will pass through one square foot
of exposed wall surface in one hour for each one degree difference
in Fahrenheit temperature between the air adjacent to the two
12
BRICK STRUCTURES
opposite wall surfaces. The short expression is: B.t.u. per sq.
ft. per hr. per degree difference.
The resistance is the reciprocal of the conductance., or 1 divided
by the conductance. Therefore, the lower the conductance and
the higher the resistance figures, the better the wall.
When Brick Walls Should Be Insulated. — It is a well-estab-
lished fact that, in all kinds of buildings, especially in dwellings,
much greater amounts of heat pass out through window and door
openings and through the roof than through the walls. The real
situation is well stated in the Bureau of Standards Circular 151,
as folloAvs:
It is probably true that unless special precautions are taken most of
the heat lost from our buildings passes out through windows and doors,
so that no marked economy could be expected from increasing the
thermal resistance of the walls.
It would, therefore, appear that adding special insulation to
increase further the high thermal resistance of brick Avails is
justified only Avhen (1) necessary measures to prevent loss through
the roof, windoAVs, and doors have been taken, and (2) AA r hen care-
ful analysis sIioavs that the cost of installed Avail insulation results
Fig. 5. — Practical and economical use of brick in this house, with walls,
entrance posts, steps, and walks all of brick. Brick laid in Flemish bond gives
delightfully uniform texture. ( Courtesy of Dwight James Baum , Architect )
-
STRUCTURAL PROPERTIES OF BRICK AND BRICKWORK 13
in a sufficient reduction in the cost of the heating plant and in
subsequent fuel saving to make the cost of insulation a profitable
investment.
There is wide variation in the results of experiments made by
different investigators on the thermal conductivity of similar
constructions. This is to be expected, for it is most difficult to
build test wall panels of either brick, wood, concrete, stone, etc.,
which are exactly alike. And such new test panels may be quite
different in thermal resistance from older similar construction in
actual buildings.
For purposes of determining heating-plant capacities, radiator
sizes, etc., the American Society of Heating and Ventilating
Engineers annual Guide gives values for the conductance of many
materials and types of construction. These values are derived
by calculation, using the standard formula, and exhibit a fair
approach to accuracy. The Guide may be consulted for specific
values for the thermal resistance of insulating materials and types
of building construction.
Resistance to Sound Transmission. — The transmission of
sound through brickwork is occasionally important as it applies
to interior partitions, party walls, and similar structures.
Elaborate laboratory apparatus and technique have produced
quite accurate data regarding the resistance to sound transmission
through many structures, but it is not easy to present the techni-
cal and physical results in terms easily understood by the layman
or by those not familiar with the testing methods.
The results of laboratory tests are usually reported in what
are known as “ reduction factors,” in units which are termed
“sensation units” and which closely represent the effect on the
ear.
For masonry walls, the resistance to sound transmission is
quite closely related to the actual mass or weight of the wall per
square foot of area. Even a thin brick partition, 234 in. thick
with plaster on both sides, is highly resistant to sound. Thicker
walls of brick are sufficiently resistant to reduce sounds of fairly
high intensity to complete inaudibility.
It should be remembered that sound is more often transmitted
through floors and through the framing of buildings than it is
through the walls themselves. Moreover, even sounds of mild
intensity in the room will completely mask sounds of greater
intensity coming from an adjacent room.
CHAPTER II
BUILDING BRICK MASONRY
MATERIALS USED IN BRICK MASONRY
The essential considerations in the production of good brick
masonry are treated in this chapter. Details of design and con-
struction are presented in Chapter III.
Qualities Desired in Brickwork.— The properties of individual
bricks do not accurately measure but only indicate the quality
of brick masonry. Two other important factors influence brick
masonry quality, namely, the kind of mortar and the character
of workmanship. The character and desired performance of the
stiucture, or of the structural part, should always be kept in mind
in designing and building brick masonry. The strongest bricks
and the strongest mortars are not always necessary to produce a
desired performance; in fact, the use of the strongest bricks and
mortars may often result in an inferior performance, as will later
be described.
Those qualities, some or all of which may be desirable in a struc-
ture or structural part, are (1) strength, (2) fire resistance, (3)
resistance to water penetration, (4) durability or permanence,
(5) resistance to heat transmission, (6) resistance to sound trans-
mission, and (7) pleasing appearance.
As will later be seen, the prevention of efflorescence is very
largely ensured by so building brick masonry as to prevent water
penetration.
Selecting the Brick. Mortar and workmanship being the
same, stronger bricks produce greater compressive strengths in
masonry, so that if high compressive strength is most desired,
then stronger bricks should be selected.
High strength is, however, very seldom the thing most desired,
for watertightness and beauty are frequently the more impor-
tant considerations. In any case, the weakest bricks produce
masonry of ample strength, having a high factor of safety over
the requirements of most building codes.
14
BUILDING BRICK MASONRY
15
Ample strength is often accomplished by the use of relatively
soft bricks (salmon) as backup for well-burned and harder bricks
used in the exposed face of the masonry. For interior walls,
especially non-bearing walls and partitions, the softer grades
of brick are usually satisfactory and produce other desirable
qualities such as resistance to heat and sound transmission.
A simple test for a well-burned brick is sometimes called the
“ring” test. When two well-burned bricks are struck together
lightly, or when a single brick is struck with a trowel, a metallic
resonant sound (or ring) is produced. There are, however, some
exceptions, for some very hard well-burned brick do not ring
when struck.
To determine whether or not the bricks for a job may, in them-
selves, contain soluble salts which may cause efflorescence, stand a
few samples on end in about an inch of distilled water. If harm-
ful salts are present, at least a trace of efflorescence will appear
just above the surface of the water within 48 hr. A 5-day test is
quite certain to show the presence or absence of soluble salts in
any harmful amounts. If no appreciable deposit appears, the
bricks alone cannot cause efflorescence in the wall.
The common cause of this trouble is, of course, the mortar
or other masonry materials.
For obtaining high fire resistance in brick masonry, the use of
any well-burned brick is satisfactory. The very nature of bricks
and their method of manufacture make individual bricks highly
resistant to severe fires.
It is important, however, that brickwork in exposed walls and
in fire walls and fire division walls be well laid in cement mortar
or cement-lime mortar (see the following section on mortars).
For obtaining durability , exposed brickwork should be built
of well-burned bricks. This applies particularly to parapet walls
and all walls exposed on both sides. High compressive strength
is not always necessary, for many structures that have withstood
the weather for several hundred years are known to be built of
bricks of moderate strength.
Resistance to heat transmission can be obtained with well-
burned or underburned bricks. It is probably true that brick
of a porous nature with minute air cells are slightly more resistant
to heat transmission than the more dense ones. Here again, the
character of the masonry, especially surface coating, such as
BRICK STRUCTURES
10
plaster, greatly influences the transmission of heat through
masonry walls or partitions.
Resistance to sound transmission is likewise obtained by the use
of almost any kind of bricks, but extensive experiments show
that resistance to sound transmission is roughly proportional
to the density of the construction.
A common mistake of the past has been to assume that the
strength of masonry of all kinds was the important consideration,
and that other desirable qualities very largely fell in line with
strength. We now know that this is not so. As previously
stated, the selection of bricks should be made with these things
in mind. It is not always necessary, although sometimes
desirable, to choose the strongest bricks for a particular job.
Selecting and Mixing Mortar. — The selecting and mixing of
mortar for use in brick masonry is an important factor in per-
formance. The function of mortar is to (1) bind the bricks into
a masonry mass, (2) carry its part of the loads and distribute
these throughout the mass of masonry, (3) produce tight joints
between the individual bricks (adhesion to bricks), and (4)
become part of the pattern or architectural appearance of the
exposed brickwork.
Brick masonry mortars are today very largely composed of
four principal ingredients: port land or natural cement, lime
(slaked or hydrated), sand, and water.
Portland cement mortar sets rather rapidly, produces high
masonry strength, and is (in itself) relatively impervious to
water, but, when alternately wet and dried suffers volume
changes which may destroy the bond between mortar and brick.
Portland cement for mortar may be of any reputable brand. It
is sometimes required to meet the standard specifications of the
A.S.T.M. (Cl 50-42).
Lime for mortar usually comes in two forms: (1) lump lime,
which must be slaked before using, after which it is usually called
‘Mime putty,” and (2) hydrated lime, which comes in the form of
a powder (previously air-slaked) and is used as delivered. Slaked
lime should be allowed to stand for at least 48 hr. before using,
and preferably longer. It is likewise best to mix hydrated
lime with water and let it stand for a short time before using.
A.S.T.M. standard specification for lime is recommended.
Sand used for mortar should preferably be clean, sharp, and
_
BUILDING BRICK MASONRY
17
well graded; that is, be a mixture of fine, medium, and coarse
particles. Bank sand is usually preferred to other kinds,
although sand from the shores of fresh-water lakes and rivers is
acceptable. Sand from salt-water shores should not be used, for
it is almost always impregnated with salts which later will
produce efflorescence on the face of the masonry.
Sand should also be free from loam, organic matter, and other
harmful ingredients.
Water should be clean and free from acids or other impurities.
Masonry mortar may consist of any proportions of cement and
sand, lime and sand, or cement, lime, and sand. Sufficient water
is always added to make a plastic mixture. When an excess of
water is used, so that the mixture runs, it is commonly called
“grout.” Various mixtures of cement, lime, and sand produce
mortars having various qualities, as more completely described
hereinafter. The more common mixtures specified for use in
brick masonry are, however, the following (all proportions are by
volume) :
Cement Mortar. — 1 part port land cement, 3 parts sand. When
not over 15 per cent of the cement quantity is added in the form
of lime putty or hydrated lime, the mixture is still called cement
mortar.
Lime Mortar. — 1 part lime putty or hydrated lime and 3 parts
sand.
Cement-lime Mortar. — 1 part port land cement, 1 part lime
putty or hydrated lime, and 6 parts sand.
Lime-cement Mortar. — 2 parts lime, 1 part cement, 9 parts sand.
Mortar Colors. Natural. — Mortar may be colored by using
colored sand, such as ground granite or other stone. When the
desired shade can be thus obtained, these are preferable to arti-
ficial colors, for natural sands and stones usually have a per-
manent color and do not weaken the mortar.
White joints may be obtained with white sand, ground lime-
stone, or marble, or by using white cement in cement mortars.
The color of the sand in the finished joint will, of course, be
somewhat modified by uncolored cementing material.
Artificial Mortar Colors. — Care should be exercised in selecting
the proper artificial color. Mortar is strongly alkaline and color-
ing matter should, therefore, be chemically inert or the color
may fade or run when in the Avail. Mineral colors are preferable.
18
BRICK STRUCTURES
For cement or cement-lime mortars, cement colors should be
used, not mortar colors.
The common practice of mixing cement, sand, and color in a
mortar box with a hoe is not recommended, for uniform batches
are difficult to produce. Wherever possible, it is better to weigh
all the ingredients and to measure the water. If the measured
ingredients can be mixed in a batch mixer, better results will be
had.
In any case, the manufacturer’s directions should be carefully
followed.
Slaking Lime. — Quicklime (unslaked) as such can never be
used for structural purposes. It must always be slaked. And
since the method of slaking is an important factor in determining
the quality of the finished product, the following directions are
given as a guide to those who lack experience:
Directions for Slaking . — Different kinds of lime vary consider-
ably in the way in which they behave with water. A little
supervision over the operation of slaking will amply pay for
itself by ensuring the production of the greatest possible quantity
and the best possible quality of putty. To find out how to slake
a new lot of lime, it is safest to try a little of it and see how it
works. Since different lots of the same brand of lime vary some-
what and since the weather conditions at the time have a decided
influence, it is wise to try a sample from each lot used, whether
familiar with the brand or not.
In a bucket, put two or three lumps of lime about the size of
one’s fist, or, in the case of granular lime, an equivalent amount.
Add just enough water barely to cover the lime, and note how
long it takes for slaking to begin. Slaking has begun when pieces
split off from the lumps or when the lumps crumble. Water of
about the same temperature should be used for test and field
practice.
If slaking begins in less than 5 min., the lime is quick slaking;
from 5 to 30 min., medium slaking; over 30 min., slow.
For quick-slaking lime, always add the lime to the water, not
the water to the lime. Have enough water at first to cover all
the lime completely. Have a plentiful supply of water available
for immediate use — a hose throwing a good stream, if possible.
Watch the lime constantly. At the slightest appearance of
escaping steam, hoe thoroughly and quickly, and add enough
BUILDING BRICK MASONRY
19
water to stop the steaming. Do not be afraid of using too much
water with this kind of lime.
For medium-slaking lime, add the water to the lime. Add
enough water so that the lime is about half submerged. Hoe
occasionally if steam starts to escape. Add a little water now
and then if necessary to prevent the putty from becoming dry
and crumbly. Be careful not to add more water than required,
and not too much at a time.
For slow-slaking lime, add enough water to the lime to moisten
it thoroughly. Let it stand until the reaction has started.
Cautiously add more water, a little at a time, taking care that
the mass is not cooled by the fresh water. Do not hoe until the
slaking is practically complete. If the weather is very cold, it
is preferable to use hot water, but if this is not available, the
mortar box may be covered in some way to keep the heat in.
Making Mortar. — After quicklime is slaked into lime putty, a
small quantity of sand is usually added and the mixture put
aside in a pile until used. It should stand at least 24 hr. before
use; a week is better. When required for mortar, the sanded
putty is shoveled into the mortar box and tempered by adding
water and more sand and working to a proper consistency. This
is attained when the mortar slides easily off the trowel. Aging
lime paste enables it to carry more sand.
Mortar with Hydrated Lime . — Hydrated lime is essentially
slaked lime, purchased and delivered in the form of a fine dry
powder instead of a paste. It is sometimes used where space on
the job is limited and there is no room to prepare and store a
stock of lime putty, and also when the time and skill necessary to
prepare lime putty are not available. It is more quickly and
accurately proportioned than lump lime.
Hydrated lime does not require slaking. It is usually mixed
with the sand and the water added. When so mixed it does not
trowel so easily as mortar made from lime putty, but the working
qualities may be improved by allowing the mortar or paste to
soak overnight.
Cement Mortar . — Since portland cement is of fairly uniform
quality, cement mortar can be mixed in any desired proportions.
The proportions recommended and most frequently specified
for maximum strength and other desirable qualities are 1 part
Portland cement and 3 parts sand, by volume, with sufficient
20
BRICK STRUCTURES
water for the proper consistency. A greater amount of sand
weakens the mix. A common but dangerous practice is to use
more sand than specified in order to lessen the cost.
Portland cement mortar is not plastic; it works “short.”
Laying brick with Portland cement mortar is slower and more
difficult and the bed joints are apt to be not so well filled as with
a more plastic mortar.
Cement-lime Mortar . — To produce a more plastic or easily
worked mortar, lime putty is added to the cement mortar. Any
desired amount may be used, but a very good mixture for all-
round work, which is strong and also economical, is 1 part cement,
1 part, lime, and 6 parts sand. Such a mixture works smoothly
and easily under the trowel and produces brickwork of high
strength and other desirable properties. An even more plastic
mortar is lime-cement mortar, 2:1:9.
Retempering Mortar . — Specifications usually require that
cement mortars be not retempered, for if the mortar has taken
any degree of initial set, the retempered mortar is weaker. The
quick-setting mortars are most affected. In fact, the loss of
strength is roughly in proportion to the speed of mortar
setting.
With a slower setting portland cement, the loss of strength is
probably not serious if the mortar is retempered immediately
after the initial set. It might, in fact, be retempered several
times without seriously affecting the tensile strength, but most
codes do not permit retempering and it is a dangerous practice
at best.
With the slower setting cement-lime or lime mortars, retem-
pering is not so harmful. A safe guide is that no mortar should
be used after it has passed beyond a state of slight initial set.
The process of retempering is to add enough water to restore
the desired consistency.
Patent or Masonry Mortars. — A number of brick mortars and
trade-marked brick cements are now on the market. Some con-
sist of portland cement, lime, and sand mixed dry and sold in
bags. Others consist of natural cement mixed with hydrated
lime or portland cement; and some also contain water-repellent
materials, such as oils or soaps.
If they are to be used, their actual properties and previous
performance over a reasonable length of time should be investi-
BUILDING BRICK MASONRY
21
gated. If used, the manufacturer’s directions should be carefully
followed.
Conclusions Regarding Mortar. — Mortar is an important ele-
ment in good masonry . Much technical information on masonry
mortars is available, but for ordinary small structures built b}'
reliable contractors employing experienced bricklayers, resort
to such technical information is not necessary.
The most extended research on masonry mortars, still in
progress, is by the Structural Clay Products Institute of Wash-
ington, D.C. For reinforced brickwork or other engineering
jobs where high stresses are to be resisted, the architect or engi-
neer will have access to all technical information available on the
subject. Especially for masonry underground or in contact with
earth, such as sewers, tunnels, and walks, a strong mortar is
necessary.
In ordinary brickwork the strongest, most expensive mortar
is not required. Adding to the strength of mortar usually adds
to its cost since it means a larger proportion of the more expensive
ingredients in the mixture.
For Ideal walls and all cavity walls of brick, described and
illustrated in this book, especially where the wall is subjected to
any lateral stress, such as wind pressure, strong and good bonding
mortar is necessary. However, for interior partitions or other
cavity walls bearing compression loads only, no special mortar
requirement is recommended.
Of equal importance with strength is plasticity of mortar and
its ability to retain water. If the water goes out of the mortar
and into the brick too rapidly, the joint will be weak. Even
the hardest burned bricks, if not vitrified, still have a degree of
porosity; this is important in securing a good bond between the
brick and the mortar.
Dry Walls. — Moisture penetration of brick walls, if through
the surface of the wall, almost invariably results from separation
of the mortar from the brick in the perpendicular joints. In
the horizontal or bed joints in the brickwork the mortar is com-
pressed by the weight of the brick. If a good job of bricklaying
has been done and all joints well filled with plastic, water-retain-
ing mortar, there should be no separation of brick and mortar at
any point. Unless the mortar itself is porous, a perfectly dry
wall, as far as surface penetration is concerned, will result.
22
BRICK STRUCTURES
It is not uncommon in investigating leaky walls to find per-
pendicular or end joints in the brickwork into which the blade
of a pocket knife may be easily inserted between brick and
mortar. It must be expected that rain, driven by wind, will
penetrate such openings.
Ground Clay in Mortar. — In addition to the use of lime to give
plasticity to mortar, it has been found that ground clay, in small
quantity, also is a safe plasticizing agent. In brickwork on
brick plants, such as kilns, sheds, and other structures, clay often
is used in the mortar with satisfactory results.
National Bureau of Standards Tests . — The National Bureau of
Standards at Washington, D.C., where many tests of brick
masonry have been made, has issued a report on “Durability
and Strength of Bond between Mortar and Brick” by L. A.
Palmer and J. V. Hall, which gives much information of value
to the brick mason. The authors of this report find that bricks
varying widely in absorption show no great difference in the life
of the bond between brick and mortar where the proper mortar
is used.
BONDS IN BRICK MASONRY
The full strength of brickwork cannot be attained without
good bond. The word bond means “to bind.” Bond is the
method of arranging the brick units so that by their overlapping
the entire wall is thoroughly tied together throughout its length
and breadth and will act as a unit in resisting stresses.
Stretchers, or bricks laid lengthwise of the wall, develop its
longitudinal strength.
Headers , or bricks laid across the wall, develop its transverse
strength.
Every type of brick wall is amply strong when properly built,
so that for structures not carrying heavy loads, the relative
strength of the various types of bond is unimportant.
Headers in Solid Walls. — The brick walls in an ordinary build-
ing are rarely called upon to support more than a small part of
the load they will safely bear. If the foundation settles unevenly,
however, some stress may be caused in the direction of the length
of the wall. The brick wall can adjust itself to slight movements
such as this without cracking or other damage, by reason of its
small units and numerous joints.
BUILDING BRICK MASONRY
23
It would appear logical, therefore, to build a solid wall mostly
of stretchers, with just enough headers to tie it together thor-
oughly and securely.
In a solid wall built entirely of common brick, all the headers
which appear on the face of the wall are real or “through
headers. Where other facing brick are used, it is more economi-
cal to use “bat” headers for all headers not actually required for
ties, so that the face brick will go further. Face brick should be
F IG. 6. — Method of lapping inside and outside header courses in 12-in. solid
brick wulls, common bond.
cut at the middle so that each half of the brick can be used for
this purpose and waste avoided.
The number of through header courses is generally defined by
building ordinances. /Placing a header course at every sixth
course, with all joints well filled, is a safe rule, except where
the backing brick only is laid on a full bed of mortar, in which
case through headers should preferably be placed every fifth
course.
Header courses may consist of a full course of headers, or of
headers and stretchers placed alternately (Flemish header
course) .
Appearance of Bonds. -In exposed work, the bond fulfills
another purpose, the mortar joints forming attractive geometrical
patterns on the surface of the wall. This is an important factor
in the beauty of brickwork.
24
BRICK STRUCTURES
Double stretcher Flemish bond
Variation of stretcher bond
Fig. 7. Various bonds used in brickwork, showing arrangement of stretchers
and headers in outer surface.
BUILDING BRICK MASONRY
25
Flemish cross bond
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Fig. 8. — Various bonds used in brickwork, showing arrangement of stretchers
and headers in outer surface.
26
BRICK STRUCTURES
Selection of Bond. — Cost and appearance should be chiefly
considered except for extremely heavy loads. For exposed work,
the most suitable bond will be determined by the architectural
design. For unexposed work and exposed low-cost work, com-
mon bond is generally employed, costing least because it is’ easily
and quickly laid and in practice is probably the strongest of the
bonds. Many charming buildings are, however, faced with brick
in common bond.
Flemish bond is practical for Ideal all-Rolok walls where such
walls are exposed. Any bond may be employed for facing Ideal
Rolok-Bak walls. Economy walls are naturally built in common
bond, with headers here and there for tying in the pilasters and
for corbeling at floor and roof lines.
Types of Bond.— There are three basic types of bond and a
multitude of variations of each: running bond, Flemish bond, and
English bond.
Running or Stretcher Bond— The surface of the wall is made
up of stretchers which break joint at the center. At the corner,
a header appears at each alternate course. Because of lack of
headers, the bond is weak transversely. Only full headers have
sufficient rigidity and bonding area to distribute the load. In a
solid wall, 12 or more inches thick, sometimes the brick in the
center is laid diagonally every few courses, the triangular portion
of the brick projecting beyond the backing, forming a tie suffi-
cient only to attach the face brick to the backing (clipped bond,
Fig. 12). Metal ties are sometimes used (Fig. 13), but with each
ol these methods only the backing can be calculated to support
the load. Metal ties are unsatisfactory also because they are
liable to rust, and their use is not recommended.
Double headers are sometimes used, with a “buttered” joint
between at every sixth or seventh course, the pair of headers
appearing as a stretcher. This forms a thoroughly good bond,
in reality a form of common bond.
Common Bond. This is a variety of running bond, but with
ery filth, sixth, or seventh course a header course, either full or
Flemish, the former being all headers, the latter with headers
and stretchers alternately. More bricks are laid in this bond
than in all the other bonds combined. It is used for exposed and
unexposed work and is the lowest in cost for solid walls or for
facing Ideal Rolok-Bak walls.
BUILDING BRICK MASONRY
’27
A “three-quarter” brick starts each header course at the
corner of the wall ; bricks in other courses need not be cut at the
corners to make them break joint. In a 12-in. wall, two header
courses are used, one on each side of the wall in adjoining courses,
overlapping in the center of the wall (Fig. 6).
For exposed work, the joints are kept perpendicular, but for
unexposed work the brick does not require such careful placing.
The end of a stretcher can be WHOLE fcfciCK. */ £
placed anywhere within the
center 4 inches of the stretcher
below and still produce a good
bond (Fig. 14). This flexibil-
ity makes for rapid work.
Corners in Flemish arid Eng-
lish Bond . — Before describing
these bonds, attention is
called to two distinct methods
of starting corners with each
of these types of bond. To
correctly locate the vertical
joints, it is necessary to in-
troduce at the comer a unit
half a header in width. In
English brickwork, a header
split in half or closure is used,
but in Dutch brickwork the
closure is eliminated, and the same effect is obtained by using a
three-quarter brick in the stretcher courses (Fig. 9).
If a closure is used, never place it directly at the corner.
Start with a full header, followed by the closure.
Flemish Bond. — This bond is a favorite among builders, being
easy to lay and producing an artistic and pleasing wall surface.
It may cost more to lay than common bond, because of the
greater care required in the workmanship, but it is more attrac-
tive in appearance.
Double Stretcher Flemish Bond. — Garden Wall Bond. — A varietv
of Flemish, with two stretchers followed by a header in each
course, the header centered on the pair of stretchers.
In double stretcher Flemish bond the joint between the pair of
headers is a blind or invisible joint, constituting the sole differ-
l 1 1 o . 9 . — (Upper) Dutch corner.
(Lower) English corner.
28
BRICK STRUCTURES
ence between double stretcher Flemish and double stretcher
garden wall bond; in the latter all the joints have the usual
appearance. Ordinary garden wall bond has three stretchers
OBTUSE SQUINT QUOIN WITH
UNCUT BRICK. THE PROJECTING
BRICK ENOS MAY BE CUT OR
RUBBED FLUSH WITH
WALL SURFACES
OBTUSE SQUINTQUOIN WITH UNCUT
BRICK LAID TO FORM PIGEONHOLES
WHICH REDUCE EFFECTIVE. WALL
thickness, tend to conduct
WATER TO INTERIOR OF WALL
AND GATHER DIRT
Fig. 10.
ACUTE SQUINT QUOINS SHOWING ALTERNATE COURSES
. Fig. 11.
between headers but may have from two to five stretchers
between headers.
English Bond. Composed of alternate courses of headers and
stretchers, headers centering on stretchers or joints between
them. Joints between stretchers are vertically over each other
BUILDING BRICK MASONRY
29
Fig. 12. — Stretcher bond tied to backing with clipped bond.
Fig. 13. — Running bond with various types of metal ties.
Fig. 14. — Greatest permissible shifting of stretchers to assume good bond ill
unexposed work.
30
BRICK STRUCTURES
in all stretcher courses. Note alternate methods of forming
comers. In the lower cut, Fig. 9, the external corner closures
are used; in the upper cut three-quarter brick, avoiding closures.
English Cross and Dutch Cross Bead.— Similar to English bond,
but an interlacing pattern of Greek crosses, this bond is produced
by breaking joints in the stretcher courses, the ends of stretchers
in each stretcher course centering on stretchers in the courses
above and below. The note with the illustration explains the
difference between English cross bond and Dutch cross or Dutch
bond.
Bond in Backing. Regardless of the bond used on the face,
unexposed backing is usually laid in common bond.
Brick Patterns. Large-scale patterns formed by the geo-
metrical arrangement of various-colored bricks and joints are
very effective, if the designs are appropriate and in scale with
the elevation. For large wall surfaces, such patterns may be
used tc splendid advantage, but for the ordinary residence or
small building they should be employed with caution, to scale
with the building. More bricklayers’ time is required to form
patterns than to lav the ordinary bonds.
JOINTS IN BRICKWORK
The space between adjacent bricks— whether filled with mortar
or left open or “dry”— constitutes a joint. Upon the manner
in which joints are treated depends much of the appearance,
weather tightness, durability, strength, and cost of the finished
wall.
Types of Joints. — There are four types of joints in brickwork
(1) shoved joints, (2) grouted joints, (3) open joints, and (4) dry
joints. Their formation and uses are as follows:
Shoved Joints . — On a bed of mortar, a little thicker than the
finished joint will be, the brick is pressed downward and side-
wise, the soft mortar rising between and filling the vertical joints.
Such joints tend to produce strong and watertight masonry.
Grouted Joints . — The bricks are bedded on a full bed of mortar,
vertical joints being filled with grout composed of similar mortar
materials with more water added.
To grout a wall quickly and conveniently, provide each brick-
layer with a bucket of water and a long-handled dipper. After
placing a course of brick (laid the thickness of a joint apart) and
BUILDING BRICK MASONRY
31
taking the dipper with his left hand, trowel with his right, he
picks up a trowel of mortar and a dipper of water with one
motion. Spreading the mortar with one hand, he adds water
from the dipper with the other, meanw hile working the mixture
between the joints with his trow el until they are completely filled.
Fig. 15. — Full flat bed of mortar Fig. 16. — Grooved mortar joints
develops maximum wall strength and should not be used, as they do not
weather tightness. develop full strength or insure dry
walls.
Grout is used in solid walls 12 in. or more thick, the outer and
inner courses being shoved w’ith mortar of ordinary stiffness to
retain the grout. Grouted brickwork is less expensive than
shoved brickwork and accomplishes the same purpose. How r -
ever, it should not be employed where the face is to be left
exposed on account of occasional trickling of the mortar over the
face.
32
BRICK STRUCTURES
Where Filled Joints Are Required. — The strongest and most
fire-resistive brickwork is laid solid with all joints full of mortar.
For fire, party, and division walls, and for construction in which
piers or walls carry heavy loads and resist
considerable stresses, all joints should be
filled. Chimneys should have all joints
well filled, including the space between
brickwork and the flue linings, to ensure a
good draft.
Basement walls should have all joints
filled.
In all walls exposed to the weather, the
outside 4-in. course should have all joints
well filled.
Specifications Should Not Always Require
“All Joints Filled.”— It is a mistake to
specify “all joints filled with mortar” for
all work. It is difficult for a mason to
shove all the brick he lays, because a man’s
hand will be raw and tender after shoving
brick all day. Requiring all brick to be
shoved generally adds unnecessarily to the
expense. In some respects not filling the
joints is an advantage since its creates an
air space in the walls.
Where Open Joints Are Allowed. — For
solid construction above grade in common
bond in a residence, a wall can be con-
structed by laying all the brick on a full
bed of mortar, with joints in the outside
course exposed to the weather shoved full,
the brick in the backing (or in the full
thickness of an interior partition) touching
end to end and the vertical space between each 4-in. thickness
left open. Every fifth course should be a header course with full
joints and the mortar mixed softer than usual.
In the walls described, the partial interruption in the contact
of material through the wall is considered to make the latter more
weather resistive. Such a wall is also cheaper to lay, appears to
dry out more quickly, and is amply strong for ordinary loads.
Fig. 17. — Inferior ma-
sonry workmanship,
showing unfilled vertical
joint as result of deep
grooving of horizontal
joint.
BUILDING BRICK MASONRY
33
Basement walls in fairly dry soils may be laid with the outer
joints shoved full, the brick in the remaining thickness laid on a
full course with brick touching end to end and the vertical space
between each 4-in. course filled with mortar.
Dry Joints . — Sometimes in low-cost work every sixth course
on the interior face of a wall is laid directly on the brick below,
omitting the bed of mortar. Dry horizontal joints provide
secure nailing for grounds, frames, etc., but weaken the wall and
are not recommended.
Joints in Ideal Walls . — The facing and backing in all Ideal
walls should have full joints. The end joints of brick on edge
are filled by buttering the bricks before they are placed.
Exposed Joints. — The mortar joint constitutes a considerable
portion of the area of the finished wall and hence should be con-
sidered as to (1) width, (2) color, (3) section, and (4) texture.
Width . — With a standard brick, two headers require a J^-in.
joint to coincide with the length of a stretcher. In forming bonds
and patterns, the J^-in. joint is thus most practical. Joints
% and ^4 in. wide are used extensively and are very effective,
the difference between the unit length of a stretcher and two
headers plus a joint being taken up by slightly varying the width
of the vertical joints. Joints 1 in. and even wider have been
used. A joint of % in. and over slows down the work, a thick
bed of soft mortar under each brick being more difficult to manip-
ulate. Special mortar should be used for wide joints.
Color of Joints . — The richness of tone in the individual brick
may be brought out and displayed to the best advantage by the
34
BIUCK STRUCTURES
proper selection of contrasting effects, which may or may not
require the use of color in the joints. No matter what bricks
are used, the effect may be spoiled and the wall have a “muddy”
appearance if the color or tone of the joints is too near that of the
bricks* The joints should be plainly visible, even at a distance.
The importance of this cannot be overstated if appearance is
essential.
Although the slight gradations in the shading of the brick add
greatly to the beauty and interest of the finished wall, the color
of the mortar joint must be kept even to produce the best effect.
Very often natural uncolored mortar will produce excellent
results, particularly with a red or darker brick. Strong sunlight
may cause any artificial mortar color to fade.
Section and Texture of Joints . — For exposed work, the joints
are made flush or recessed. With the former, the individual
bricks are visible according to the contrast in color and texture
between brick and joint. With the latter, the brick outlines are
also marked by their shadows.
Some designers think that the texture of the mortar joint
should resemble that of the brick, but it is unsafe to lay down
hard and fast rules, for charming effects are often produced by a
contrast in the texture of brick and joint.
A steel jointer or trowel produces a smooth texture, while a
wood surface is generally used for a rough texture. Coarse sand
or even fine gravel in the mix, if the joint is wide enough, also
assists in forming a rough surface.
Types of Exposed Joints. Plain Cut Joints . — These joints are
used for concealed surfaces and for joints in fire and party walls.
Plain cut joints may be used on a basement wall to receive damp-
proofing. They are formed by simply cutting off excess mortar
with the edge of the trowel.
Struck Joints . — The cheapest and most easily formed joint
for exterior surfaces. When well done, it makes a neat wall.
Sometimes objection is made that this joint is not as weather
resistive as the weathered joint. However, raked joints, which
expose much more of the upper surface of the brick, have proved
successful and this objection would seem more theoretical than
otherwise.
This joint is widely used for exterior exposed work and for the
inside exposed surface of basement walls and other unplastered
BUILDING BRICK MASONRY
35
brick surfaces. It should be used on a basement wall on which
asphalt or similar damp-proofing is to be mopped.
It is formed as a plain cut joint and finished with the trowel
as the mortar becomes stiffer.
Weathered Joints . — Similar to a struck joint but formed from
above. Each course of brick throws a slight shadow. It is
difficult to preserve exactly the same slope on the face of the
joint.
Fig. 19. — Struck joint in common bond.
Flush Joints . — Almost always finished with a rough texture.
When used with rough textured brick it is difficult to keep the
mortar from the face of the brick.
This joint is formed by cutting off mortar squeezed beyond the
face of the wall. The joint must not be manipulated afterwards
with the trowel, lest the cement be drawn to the surface and the
rough texture spoiled. If further treatment is needed, the surface
may be gently tapped with the end of a piece of wood having
an extremely rough end grain.
Raked Joints . — The joint is first plain cut and afterwards
raked out to the depth desired, a steel jointer being employed
to obtain a smooth texture, a wood stick for a rough texture.
Corners should be formed square and all excess mortar removed
to produce a neat effect. A cheaper method is to rake the joint
quickly and roughly with a stick as the wall is built, brooming
36
BRICK STRUCTURES
out the excess mortar the following day, no attempt being made
to produce square corners. This joint should not be attempted
w ith rough-textured brick.
Fig. 20. — Concave joint in Flemish bond.
Ideal all-Rolok walls may be constructed with raked joints,
if the rake is not cut too deeply. A brick on edge has a 2^-in.
bearing surface. A 3^-in. rake, therefore, will leave 1% in. of
bearing surface.
Fig. 21. — Weathered joint sheds water from the joint,
BUILDING BRICK MASONRY
37
Stripped Joincs . — These joints produce the neatest and clean-
est raked joint and are specially useful with rough-textured brick,
as they keep the mortar from the face of the wall. This is a
slower and more expensive process than raking the joint.
A wood strip the thickness of the mortar joint is laid at the
front of the wall, set in any depth desired. The bed of mortar
is placed behind and flush with the top of the strip and the next
course laid, the strip being removed when the mortar has set
sufficiently.
I Joints and Concave Joints . — These joints are comparatively
inexpensive to form and are weather resistive. Both are best
formed with special tools made for the purpose. A V joint may
be roughly formed, however, with a square-edged board held at
an angle and rubbed along the joint; a concave joint may be
similarly formed with a board having a rounded edge, or a bent
iron rod.
Homewood Joints . — A special tooled joint developed in Balti-
more that has come to be known as the Homewood joint is made
with a tool that forms a fine indented line in the center of the
mortar joint. This tool is run along the joints against the
straight edge after the manner of marking false tile work in hard
plaster walls.
Essentials of Good Workmanship. — To secure the desired
performance of brick masonry, good workmanship is essential.
It should never be sacrificed to speed of production. A skilled
artisan will, however, produce good workmanship at relatively
high speed, for his knowledge of the essentials automatically
guides his technique.
The essence of good workmanship is joint filling. And joint
filling is aided by the use of a workable mortar (see section on
mortars). In certain types and certain parts of masonry, joint
filling is not so essential, but these cases are exceptions to the rule,
as mentioned specifically in preceding paragraphs.
Assuming that proper selections of bricks and mortar are at
hand, the trained bricklayer needs but little guidance or super-
vision. When dominated by an ignorant or unscrupulous con-
tractor, brick-mason production may well be supervised and
inspected. The more important points that should command
attention are discussed in the reference pages in Chapter III with
respect to specific types of brickwork. The broader problems of
38
BRICK STRUCTURES
brick masonry construction, largely applying to houses and minor
buildings, are touched upon in the following sections.
PREVENTING WET WALLS AND EFFLORESCENCE
Discoloration . — The discoloration of brick masonry may
result from three causes, namely, efflorescence, staining, or
1 scumming.”
“Scumming” is a term used to describe the discoloration of
brick during the process of manufacture. It is usually caused by
the presence of gaseous combustion products of sulphur in dryers
or kilns. Such bricks are rarely sold for use in facing, however
and need be given little consideration here.
Staining is caused by the deposit of foreign materials such as
iron rust, soot, etc., over exterior surfaces, usually by the action
of rain or melted snow. While, in general, staining does not
originate in the masonry materials themselves, certain types of
limestone and sandstone contain organic material which, if such
stone is used in structures, may be leached out by water and
deposited on the surface, resulting in yellow, brown, or red stains.
Efflorescence , the more prevalent source of discoloration, is the
deposit of soluble salts on the surface of masonry. This phe-
nomenon is of such importance as to merit careful consideration.
Efflorescence occurs only when water-soluble salts are present in
masonry materials and water gains access to these materials
and carries them, in solution, to the surface. Its occurrence
might, therefore, be altogether avoided if it were possible to do
either of two things — use only materials entirely free from solu-
ble salts, or build waterproof masonry. In practice, while it is
desirable to select materials as free as possible from deleterious
salts, the remedy is found in the practical elimination of water by
proper methods of design and construction and effective main-
tenance of the completed structure.
Selection of Materials. — No material used in brick masonry can
be depended upon to be entirely free from soluble salts. Since
materials from the same sources may vary greatly at frequent
intervals, their chemical properties may well be checked by tests.
Brick . — While the process of burning brick tends to reduce the
amount of soluble salts to a negligible minimum, sulphate of lime
and, more rarely, the sulphates of iron, potassium, sodium, and
magnesium may be present in harmful quantities, especially in
underburned or porous brick.
BUILDING BRICK MASONRY
39
A simple and effective test of brick to determine its tendency
to develop efflorescence is the following: Select a number of
bricks, representative of the manufacturer's product, and stand
them on end in a pan containing distilled water, 1 in. in depth.
Replenish water as necessary to take care of loss by evaporation.
It soluble salts are present in harmful quantities, noticeable
efflorescence will appear on the surfaces of the bricks, usually
within 48 hr., though the test should be continued for at least 2
weeks before final conclusions are reached.
Portland Cement . — Although portland cement may or may not
cause efflorescence, it usually contains soluble salts. Gypsum,
which is added to cements to retard the rate of set, is itself soluble
and small quantities of soluble alkali sulphates are often present.
Chemical analysis is the most satisfactory method of determining
the quality of cements and their tendency to cause efflorescence.
Lime . — Most limes contain soluble salts in small quantity,
although an excessive amount of water is required to bring them
to the surface of the masonry. As in the case of cements,
chemical tests are necessary to determine quality.
Sand . — Sea sand or dirty sand which has not been thoroughly
washed may contain soluble salts.
Water, particularly that which is strongly alkali, may contri-
bute to efflorescence when used in mortar.
Admixtures, such as calcium or sodium chloride, used in mortar
to prevent freezing, are almost certain to cause efflorescence and
are therefore not recommended.
Details of Design. — After materials normally free from soluble
salts have been selected, it is still essential that details of design
be such as to prevent water from penetrating the interior of the
masonry. The importance of careful design cannot be exag-
gerated, for efflorescence, objectionable in itself, is usually also a
danger signal, indicating basic defects in construction. The
circumstances favorable to the formation of efflorescence are
those which are also favorable to the disintegration of mortar
joints by the leaching, freezing, and thawing action of admitted
water, and the masonry may be damaged or disintegrated unless
such conditions are corrected. A sound principle of design is to
allow only vertical surfaces of brick to be exposed to rain, unless
proper flashing or waterproofing be interposed to prevent the
travel of moisture.
40
BRICK STRUCTURES
Recommended Practices.— More specifically, the following
practices are recommended:
Copings should be made of impervious materials and all joints
should be thoroughly filled and watertight. Roof flashing should
be carried completely through parapet walls, or within 1 in. of
the face, to prevent water travel in the interior of the wall. If
ovei hanging, the overhang of the coping should be ample and
drip grooves should be provided.
Caps of stone or other material at the tops of buttresses, piers,
chimneys, and elsewhere should project and be provided with
drip grooves.
Parapet walls should be made of the best brick, mortar, and
workmanship, because of their extreme importance in preventing
wet walls and efflorescence. It is unfortunately customary for
masons to use ‘‘tailings” of brick and mortar, brickbats, and
imperfect brick in the parapet walls simply because these are the
last to be finished. This is extremely bad practice and should
never be tolerated.
Window sills, if made of a single piece of stone or other material,
should project at least 2 in. and be provided with drips. If made
of brick, suitable metal flashing or waterproofing should be
placed under the sill.
Projecting courses of brick or exterior corbels should be used
only when ample provision is made to prevent water penetration.
Recessed panels may be a source of trouble and require careful
treatment.
Gutters and downspouts should be designed to avoid wash on
the face of the wall.
Ground moisture at the grade line may be a source of efflores-
cence. Bituminous waterproofing should be interposed between
the masonry and the soil or a damp-proofing course of slate,
mastic, etc., be used at grade.
Foundation walls and retaining walls should have bituminous
waterproofing applied on faces in contact with soil. Retaining
walls should be capped so as to exclude water from the interior.
Integrally waterproofed mortars appear to be capable of stop-
ping capillary travel of water, the most effective materials
probably being the insoluble metal soaps. Their limitations
have not yet been fully determined.
Transparent “ Waterproof ers .”— No surface waterproofing is
BUILDING BRICK MASONRY
41
capable of filling holes in masonry or correcting structural
defects. Surfaces requiring treatment should, therefore, be
put in good repair. The transparent waterproofers in common
use are (1) paraffin or very heavy mineral oils in solution in light
mineral spirits; (2) metallic soaps (aluminum, zinc, etc., salts of
fatty acids); (3) varnishes, usually mixtures of organic oils and
gums; and (4) materials in water solution, intended to penetrate
the pores of brick, stone, and mortar and form seals, as, for
example, water glass (sodium silicate), fluosilicate, etc.
The use of transparent waterproofing materials is probably
justified only when defects in construction have been made good
and when it is then evident that the only moisture entering a
wall is entering through the vertical face and is due to the
porosity of the bricks or mortar, or both, and not to defective
joints, and when this moisture is sufficient to cause and con-
tinue to cause efflorescence.
The choice of a suitable waterproofer can probably best
be made on the basis of selecting that brand or type which actual
experience in a given locality has shown to be the most perma-
nently effective in withstanding local climatic conditions. Current
opinion concerning this question is varied and often conflict-
ing. Laboratory investigation does not thus far justify positive
conclusions.
Selection of Mortar . — While more research is necessary before
positive conclusions can be reached, the opinion is growing that
the use of a mortar containing a fair proportion of lime is likely
to produce more watertight masonry. A lime-cement mortar
2:1:9, for example, has sufficient compressive strength for all
ordinary requirements. It is workable, a factor which makes for
more completely filled joints. It is possible that such a mortar
possesses a certain toughness or elasticity that tends to prevent
the opening of cracks between brick and mortar joints which are
likely to admit water. And finally, it is probably more immune
to volume changes from variation in moisture content than richer
mortars.
Joints . — All mortar joints in exposed masonry should be com-
pletely filled and finished in such a manner as to prevent hori-
zontal ledges that may retain water that may subsequently find
its way into the masonry.
Hollow Walls . — Hollow walls, discussed in detail in Chapter
42
BRICK STRUCTURES
III, are effective in preventing wet interiors. The air spaces
which they provide, especially if proper provision is made for
the circulation of air through them, may be depended upon to
evaporate such moisture as may penetrate through the outer
faces.
Care during construction is essential. Materials should be so
stored as to avoid the absorption of excessive moisture. Unfin-
ished walls should be covered at night with canvas or tar paper.
Reinforced brickwork or concrete floors, when built simultane-
ously with walls, should be so constructed that the wash from
their surfaces does not come in contact with the wall faces.
Maintenance. The proper maintenance of brick masonry is
important in the prevention of efflorescence. Downspouts and
gutters should be kept in repair. Cracks due to settlement or
other cause should be promptly pointed up. The appearance of
efflorescence at any point may be an indication of faulty work-
manship, which, if found, should be corrected.
Removal of Efflorescence— Rain often washes efflorescence away
and should be given a chance. If it still persists, it may be
removed by scrubbing the affected surface with a solution of 19
parts water and 1 part muriatic (hydrochloric) acid, thereafter
washing thoroughly with clear water. If considered necessary,
the surface may be washed again with water to which a small
amount of household ammonia has been added. Should efflo-
i escence reappear, it may be necessary to treat the wall surface
1 uither. Rut, should transparent waterproofing be decided
upon, this application should be made only during warm, dry
weather.
PRACTICAL CONSTRUCTION EQUIPMENT
1 he following deals chiefly with equipment required for an
ordinary house job.
Shed. A small storage shed should be built on the job to keep
cement and lime dry. On a small job, one corner of this shed
near the door can be fitted with a window and a rough desk to
serve as an office. Toward the completion of the job the shed
may be taken down and the boards used for cellar shelving. The
cost of the shed should be added to the cost of the job.
Safe Scaffolding. Scaffolding can be used many times over"
on a number of jobs, and its first cost should be charged to
equipment.
BUILDING BRICK MASONRY
43
Great care should be used to make scaffolding safe. Scaffold
accidents are by no means uncommon and are due in most cases to
carelessness. “ Blind traps,” or boards that tip up when walked
upon, should be avoided by not allowing the ends of the boards
to project more than 6 in. over their support.
Where Scaffolding Is Required. — In building the lower part
of the basement wall the mason stands in the excavation, the
Fig. 22. — Foot scaffold.
upper part being built from the grade. Scaffold plank on trestles
is required in the basement only for independent chimneys and
piers.
Walls above the first floor line are built from inside the house.
In all but the cheapest construction a rough underfloor is used
and this floor is laid as soon as the joists are placed. The mason
builds the lower 4 to ft. of each story from the subfloor,
scaffold planks on trestles being placed when the wall reaches
this height. Where the finished floor is only of one thickness,
rough plank flooring must be laid temporarily on the joists, this
plank being moved up to the next story when the lower story
wall is finished.
Walls can be cleaned down from a ladder or a painter’s scaffold.
On higher buildings, scaffold brackets may be used to support
plank for this purpose if brickwork is cleaned down before the
plasterer starts; otherwise, exterior scaffolding must be used.
The carpenter will need an exterior scaffold of some kind to
work on the overhanging eaves or cornice.
44
BRICK STRUCTURES
Material Runs. Brick and mortar are generally handled in
A\heelbanows for walls up to the height of the second-story joists,
and a sloping 2- by 10-in. plank wheelbarrow run should be laid
from grade through a convenient door opening to the first-floor
line.
Above the line of the second-floor joists, materials are most
conveniently handled in hods. An inexperienced man will at
•first have difficulty in carrying a full hod up a ladder, and some
contractors prefer to use cleated runs of 2- by 10-in. plank
instead. An experienced man much prefers a ladder.
Line.— In some localities it is customary for the contractor to
piovide the bricklayers with line; in others the masons furnish
their own. The line in the average mason’s kit bag, however,
leaves much to be desired and, regardless of custom, it will gen-
erally pay the contractor to furnish the line. Line rotted by
lime or cement breaks easily and soon becomes full of knots, the
loose ends getting into the joints and cutting down the efficiency
of the bricklayer. Moreover, when the line breaks, the brick-
layers must stop until it can be tied and reset. Line costs only
a few cents, and it is real economy for the contractor to furnish it.
PRACTICAL NOTES ON PROCEDURE
Dividing Work.— Always divide off the wall so that each brick-
layer will have about the same amount of work to do. This will
enable the contractor to pick out the best men. On a wall with
few openings bricklayers are placed about 6 ft. apart.
Wetting the Brick Before Laying— It is important that all
brick, except impervious brick, be wet before being laid, except
in fieezing weather. 1 he hotter and drier the weather, the more
water should be used. If the bricks are not wet, they will absorb
the moisture from the mortar, which will interfere with its setting
and adhesion to the bricks. On the other hand, the bricks must
not be soaked, as they can be made so wet that they will slide on
a bed of mortar and this may so thin the mortar that it will run
down the face of the wall, making good work difficult. No hard
and fast rules for wetting brick can be given, even though we may
know- the absorption properties of the brick being used. Experi-
ence is the best guide.
Handling Brick. Do not allow the brick tenders to throw
d° wn the bricks on the scaffold so that they scatter or chip.
BUILDING BRICK MASONRY
45
Care on the part of tenders will save the more valuable time of
the bricklayers.
Keeping the Scaffold Clean. — The bricklayer’s working space
on the scaffold can be kept clean and tidy just as well as not, and
by ensuring a good foothold it will add to the efficiency of the
masons.
Every bat or broken brick can and should be used in the wall
as the work goes along. No brick should be wasted.
Protecting the Work at Night.— It is important that the walls
be protected every night by being covered with boards or other
substantial protection to keep off the rain and weather. Boards
should have bricks piled on them loosely to prevent the wind
blowing them off.
Building the Wall. — The bricklayers build the walls from the
inside, pointing the face as they go. The most experienced brick-
layers are placed at the corners to run up the leads and raise the
line. Leads consist of a few courses of brick run up at the corners
to which the “trig” and line are attached. The line is generally
raised course by course.
Joist Support. — In brickwork, the courses can easily be laid
out and adjusted so that the courses supporting joists will be at
the exact height required. No “shims” or blocking under the
joists are needed or should be allowed.
Joists and timbers should be set directly on the brick, unless
their bearing surface is so small that they transmit a load greater
than the safe bearing capacity of the wall. When this occurs,
bearing plates are required.
Never use wood bonding timbers. They will shrink and
seriously weaken any wall.
Floor and Roof Anchors. — In the better class of residence work
floor joists and roof plates are anchored to the walls. Some
cities require this by ordinance. In the great majority of specu-
lative residence work outside such cities, however, anchors are
not used. Anchors are spaced approximately 6 ft. apart both
for floor joists and roof plate. Where joists run parallel to the
wall the anchor straps (made long) are attached to about three
joists, into which they are mortised on top.
When the joists are at right angles to the wall, anchors should
be placed near the bottom of the joist, to lessen the strain on the
wall in case the joist burns away in a fire and drops out.
BRICK STRUCTURES
S. Roof-plate anchor and commonly used type of joist anchor.
BUILDING BRICK MASONRY
47
Roof-plate anchors are built in as the wall nears that level.
They are generally J £-in. bolts with a washer at the bottom and
a nut and washer at the top.
Joists. — Joists with square ends should not be placed in a
masonry wall. The ends should be splayed or fire cut as shown
in Fig. 23. This enables the joist to drop out easily in case of
fire without damaging the masonry.
A narrow space should be left on each side and at the end of
every joist to allow the air to circulate around it to prevent dry
rot.
Cleaning Brickwork. — The brick mason’s job is not finished
until his work is cleaned or washed down, if necessary with a
dilute acid bath (usually a 5 per cent solution of muriatic acid,
1 pt. to 3 gal.), followed by a copious flushing with water.
Care in building the exposed tiers of brickwork will, more often
than not, be well repaid in the smaller amount of cleaning neces-
sary. It takes time to clean mortar stains from brickwork.
BRICK CONSTRUCTION IN FREEZING WEATHER
Cold Weather No Obstacle to Good Work. — Good brickwork
can be produced in freezing weather and operations successfully
carried on during winter weather, as was evidenced in demolish-
ing old brick walls constructed in Winnipeg, Canada, during the
coldest portion of intensely cold winters. It is the custom today
at important summer resorts to do all construction work through-
out the winter. Brick masonry may be built in cold weather
at no great additional cost if a few simple precautions are taken.
Mortar. — Portland cement or cement-lime mortar should be
used in freezing weather. Freezing temperatures may injure
natural cements, and lime mortar sets too slowly.
It is better not to mix lime with the cement mortar, but in the
event that it is used, only just enough lime to make the mortar
workable should be added, for lime delays the initial set of the
cement mortar.
Brick. — Impervious bricks are laid with more difficulty in freez-
ing weather than are nonimpervious brick.
Bricks laid in freezing weather should not be wet. Bricks
should be thoroughly dry and free of ice when laid in the wall.
Much money will be saved in bricklayers’ time if the brick piles
are kept covered with tarpaulins.
48
BRICK STRUCTURES
Heating Materials. On a small job in a moderate climate it
may be possible to avoid the expense of special equipment.
Manuie may be spread on the soil around footings to prevent
penetration of frost beneath them. Sand may be piled in a long
high heap. The top and sides of the heap will freeze and sand
for use can be tunneled from the ends. The openings at the ends
should be kept closed. Frozen sand must not, of course, be used
for making mortar. Mortar should have attained its initial set
BUILDING BRICK MASONRY
49
before it freezes, although some contractors who have success-
fully carried on operations in freezing weather are satisfied if the
mortar can be kept from freezing until placed in the wall. A
salamander or fire kept going near the box will help in preventing
the mortar from freezing.
In severely cold weather, however, and on larger work the
following methods may be followed advantageously:
All materials, including brick, water, cement, and sand, should
be heated so that the mortar will be about 60°F. when bricks are
laid. Sand may be heated most conveniently by running hori-
zontally through the material pile a corrugated sheet-metal
culvert about 20 in. in diameter and 10 ft. long, or an old steel
chimney stack or any other circular iron section, keeping a fire
going at one end. Water may be heated in a coil attached to the
water main with a fire in the center, or in an iron can placed over
a fire. Water should not be allowed to get much hotter than
165°F. or it will injure the mortar.
Lowering the Freezing Point of Mortar. — Salt or calcium
chloride is sometimes added to the mortar to lower its freezing
point, but these substances may cause efflorescence on the face
of the wall and should not be used where appearance is a factor.
Screens for Bricklayers. — It is possible, where the cold is
not too intense, to run a small job in winter without special
equipment or protection. This applies also to protection for
bricklayers, although bricklayers are, of course, more comfort-
able in an enclosed space heated with salamanders.
A screen may be constructed of canvas or tarpaulins on light
wooden supports, forming an enclosure over the wall being built,
with openings for material, etc. Salamanders fired with coke
will keep the enclosure comfortable and help the mortar to set.
Coal should not be used, as its gas affects the workers.
Keeping the Walls Even. — If a wall is carried up several feet in
a day on one side of the house only, there may be some danger of
throwing it out of plumb if the warm rays of the sun strike it.
* It is better practice to build less height per day and keep the walls
at an even height all around the house. Clipped bond and metal
wall ties should be avoided in freezing weather, and headers
should be placed at least every sixth course.
Closing Up Each Story. — Each story should be closed up as
soon as the floor joists are laid. Rough flooring above should
50
BRICK STRUCTURES
be placed and openings boarded up, using building paper to
cover the cracks. Salamanders should be used to raise the tem-
perature and dry out the wall for the plasterer.
Keeping Going in Winter Weather— It is not necessary to
shut down in winter. Many operations, small and large, have
been successfully put through in cold weather. There is no
profit when the work is closed down.
CHAPTER III
STRUCTURAL USES OF BRICK MASONRY
PRACTICAL REFERENCE DATA ON DESIGN AND WORKMANSHIP
IN TYPICAL STRUCTURAL APPLICATIONS OF BRICK IN BUILDINGS
Reference data pages, which constitute this chapter, present
practical information on design, materials, and construction
methods relating to the use of brick masonry in typical buildings.
To simplify reference to the subjects covered, the problems of
brick construction are arranged as closely as possible in the order
of their consideration when designing or erecting a brick masonry
building. Thus the first section is devoted to footings, founda-
tions, and basement construction; the next to different types of
walls, and so through to a series of special problems which can-
not be arranged in any structural or design sequence.
Except where necessary for eliminating too-frequent cross
reference, the general information contained in Chapter II which
relates to the broader problems of brick masonry construction is
not repeated in the individual reference sections. For this
reason, the reader may benefit by becoming thoroughly familiar
with the contents of Chapter II before attempting to use the
more specific information that follows.
Technical Design Data. — It should be noted that this book
makes no attempt to incorporate technical details regarding
structural design of the elements of brick masonry.
Estimating Data. — While general methods of estimating the
quantities of materials required in any typical construction are
given wherever possible in these reference pages, the reader
should become familiar with the condensed reference tables which
constitute Chapter V of this book.
FOOTINGS, FOUNDATIONS AND BASEMENT DETAILS
Advantages of Brick Construction in Basements. — Brick
masonry constitutes excellent construction for basement walls,
footings, piers, and floors. Among its advantages are the
following:
51
52
BRICK STRUCTURES
1. Brick walls have great stability, easily resisting abnormal
thrusts and stresses of considerable magnitude.
PARTITIONS
rnBfpBBioc
CKSiuT^WlTH
km) sl ope
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t' BRICK.-
rLAlRFLATtB
no^uppoerp 5
[brick- on yhi
EDGE- HS
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DGt* -pJk
GRADED WITH FI ME
SR1AL TOWARD TOP
PPA1M ‘WREN Nlibtb-
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EXCEPT WHERE' GONCENTEATED LOADS OCCUR.-
T 5 QMETRlC- 5 E.CTONOFA- 5 S.ID- BRICK-HOUSE-
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Brick on edge
footing for.
<TWAU. •< — -
•AU-CXTCRIOR a IN -SOLIO MASONRY-
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FWLDINQ can be omitted
ON IDEAL WALLS
DR1CK. FILL
BETWEEN
•DIRECT-SECTION'
•SHOWING- FIRE- .
•ST 0 PPING- 5 ETWEENJ 0 I 5 TS
Fig. 25.
2. Brick basements require less excavation, less equipment,
fewer materials, less supervision, and less overhead. They are
quickly completed immediately after excavation is finished.
3. Brick basement walls are moisture resistive when properly
built and may easily be waterproofed in wet soils.
4. Brick is unaffected by soil alkalies and should always be
used in strongly alkaline soils, to the exclusion of other materials.
STRUCTURAL USES OF BRICK MASONRY
53
5. Brick basement walls are attractive in appearance and facili-
tate the use of basement space for playrooms, secondary living
rooms, etc. They form excellent backgrounds for pictures, rugs,
wrought-iron ornament, and other decoration. By laying the
inner face of the wall in a selected bond or simple pattern, a
recreation room may be made an architectural feature of extra-
ordinary interest. Brick partitions should enclose the other
sides of the basement room.
6. Brick piers are economical, permanent, and more highly
fire resistive than metal stanchions or columns. The latter, filled
with plain concrete, are given only a 25-min. fire rating; filled
and reinforced, they have a 45-min. fire rating. Brick piers
enjoy maximum fire ratings.
Workmanship. — In footings for both walls and piers, all joints
should be completely filled by shoving the bricks into a full
mortar bed or by grouting. Every other course, from the bottom
upward, and the last outside course in each layer should be of
headers, so that the corbeled overhang will be but a minor
fraction of the total brick length (not over 2 in. in any case).
The lowest course should rest on a full bed of mortar so as to
spread the load uniformly.
A drain should be properly laid around the entire footing
(in water-bearing soils) and connected to the sewer or other
discharge.
Foundation walls should have all joints filled, be properly
bonded, and be plumb with all courses horizontal. Maximum
strength is thus developed. This also aids to ensure water-
tightness. The outside of foundation walls below grade should
be plastered, as the work proceeds, with a coat of cement mortar,
not less than in. thick, well troweled on to an even smooth
surface. In damp or wet soils, it may be well to add also a coat-
ing of bituminous waterproofing.
The construction of piers is governed by the same precautions
as foundations, except for those affecting damp-proofing. Joints
should be filled, the work well bonded and built plumb with
courses horizontal. No chases or other openings of sufficient
size to decrease the necessary bearing area should be built into
piers.
Design and Construction Data. — Footings or walls without
footings must always be taken below the frost line. The frost
54
BRICK STRUCTURES
should be given no chance to heave up walls or footings, porch
walls included.
No part of the building is more important than the foundation.
If there is the least doubt regarding the firmness of the soil, the
excavation should be carried down to firmer ground, and the
footing made wider by stepping off with more courses. Never
place a wall on filled ground or spongy, springy soil.
If stone of suitable character for footings or foundation walls is
encountered during excavation, it may be economical to use it
instead of brick below ground.
Footings. — A residence foundation wall 12 in. thick built upon
firm ground will not require a footing in the majority of cases,
except where concentrated loads occur. Where a footing is
deemed necessary it may either be composed of concrete poured
into a trench or be built expeditiously of hard-burned brick in
cement mortar. The footing for a 4-in. interior partition may be
8 in. wide, consisting of a header course on edge.
Projections are formed by stepping off each course or every
other course about 2 in., the projections being formed of a con-
tinuous course of headers. Projections should be equal on both
sides of the wall. It is recommended that projecting courses be
formed of brick on edge, these being capable of resisting a greater
transverse stress than flat courses.
The excavation should be carefully leveled and the first course
laid on cement mortar spread upon the ground.
Drain at Footings. — It is advisable in almost all cases to place
a porous tile drain at the bottom of the wall or at the footings to
carry off any water that may accumulate. This drain should
be laid with an even slope, the high point not above the floor level
and the low point not below the bottom of the wall or footing.
The best way to avoid dips and traps in the drain is to lay it
on a board with a strip nailed at the side to hold it in place
laterally. The fill over the tile should be of dry material such
as large stones or broken brick placed carefully on the tile — not
dumped from a wheelbarrow — and the finer fill graded toward
the top. The tile should be connected with the cellar floor or
surface-water-drainage system.
Basement Piers. — If local ordinances permit, basement piers
may economically be built hollow with brick on edge, as shown
in Fig. 25.
STRUCTURAL USES OF BRICK MASONRY 55
Basement Paving. If the soil is firm and dry, basement pav-
ing may consist of brick on edge or flat laid upon a bed of sand
not less than 2 in. thick. The sand is tamped or rolled level and
the joints afterward carefully poured full of cement grout, the
brick being wiped clean before the grout has set. Another
Pig 26 . Method of applying membrane waterproofing to walls and floors
subjected to severe hydrostatic pressure.
method is to sweep the joints full of cement grout with a broom.
Methods of laying brick walks and steps apply also in general to
basement paving. A cheaper method even than this is to sweep
the joints full of sand, as described for garden walks. Salt
should be mixed generously with the sand to eliminate all danger
of vegetation appearing between the joints. If the soil is not
firm, however, the floor laid by either of the foregoing methods
56
BRICK STRUCTURES
may become irregular in time. If there is any doubt about the
firmness of the soil or if it is not quite dry, place a 3-in. bed of
lean 1 : 8 concrete under the floor with the brick wearing surface
on top.
Number of Bricks in Basement Paving— Figure the area of
the paving in square feet. If the bricks are on edge, read the
number of bricks required from Table 9, page 165. If laid flat,
figure 43^ bricks per sq. ft.
Allow cu. ft. sand to every square yard of paving for a
cushion 2 in. thick.
Grout for Basement Paving. — Grout should be mixed in the
proportion of 1 part portland cement to 3 parts sand, made thin
so it will run down and fill the entire joint. Approximately 3
bags cement and ^ cu. yd. sand are required for every 1,000
brick laid with joints Y\§ to 34 in. wide.
Damp -proofing Basement Walls. — Except in extremely dry
soils, it is much safer to damp-proof the basement walls. This
should always be placed on the outside of the wall.
To resist ordinary dampness, the best damp-proofing is con-
sidered by many to consist of asphalt thoroughly well mopped
boiling hot directly on the brick wall, which should be laid with
struck joints. A mixture of 3 parts tar and 1 part pitch is some-
times used ; this forms an excellent low-cost damp-proofing. Tar
alone is sometimes employed, but it soon becomes brittle and
flakes off. A 3^-in. coat of cement plaster is sometimes used,
but it is probably not as effective or reliable as mopping the wall
as described above.
If the soil is actually wet, the wall may be waterproofed by
first mopping it thoroughly with boiling hot asphalt, and then
applying one or two thicknesses of felt, with asphalt mopped
between each ply and over the last ply. This treatment is
expensive and need only be applied where water conditions are
severe.
In very wet soils it is also advisable in some cases to waterproof
the top of the footing to prevent moisture rising in the wall by
capillary attraction. Two courses of slate, laid to break joint,
or a strip of composition roofing will answer this purpose. As a
further protection, a similar course may also be laid about 6 in.
above the grade line.
Coating 1,000 sq. ft. of brick wall with asphalt requires 200 lb.
STRUCTURAL USES OF BRICK MASONRY
57
hot asphalt, 4 hr. attending fire, and 4 hr. mopping the wall. A
boiler will be required for heating the asphalt.
Fig. 27. — Alternate method of eliminating condensation on basement walls.
Note formation of condensation gutter and use of insulating board and plaster.
Open joints should be left at intervals in the brick base trim to allow water to
reach condensation gutter.
Cement plaster for damp-proofing the outside of basement walls
below grade should be composed of 7 part portland cement to 2
parts very coarse sand. The finish should be compactly troweled
fairly smooth but need not be floated. The following quantity
of material is necessary to cover 100 sq. ft. of brick with plaster
58
BRICK STRUCTURES
V£-in. thick: 2 bags Portland cement, 4 cu. ft. sand, Y 2 hr. laborer’s
time mixing plaster.
Eliminating Condensation in Basements. — Much of the damp-
ness found in basements of any construction is due to condensa-
tion rather than to leakage through walls or floors. Masonry
walls in contact with earth are not responsive to temperature
changes within and frequently remain colder than the air in the
Fig. 28. Building a basement wall 12 in. in thickness. With brick no forms
arc necessary.
basement after the heating plant has been turned off in the spring
and summer. Moisture-laden air, entering the basement at these
times, is cooled by the walls and condenses its moisture thereon,
causing a condition of apparent dampness that is frequently
blamed upon leakage.
Condensation Gutters. If solid brick or other masonry walls
below grade are left exposed, they are inevitably subject to con-
densation when there is no artificial heat to keep the air rela-
tively dry. When the basement is not used for recreational or
living purposes, this condensation does no damage and may be
relieved by keeping the basement well ventilated when the heater
is not in operation. Condensation that forms upon the walls
may be prevented from spreading over the floor by constructing
a condensation gutter in the manner illustrated in Fig. 27.
STRUCTURAL USES OF BRICK MASONRY
59
This gutter is formed by laying a 1-in. board against the inner
face of the foundation wall from the top of the footing to a point
above the grade of the finished floor. If a concrete subfloor or
basement floor is laid, it should be poured against this board and
not be permitted to bond with the footings. The finished brick
floor surface, if used, should also be laid up against this board and
the entire floor area should be pitched to drain from the center
toward the surrounding walls. After the floor is completed, the
board should be removed, leaving a gutter which will carry the
condensation into the earth. - —
This construction is only recommended when the footings are
drained with a tile drain carried to some outfall. If soil condi-
tions are* very wet and no drain is provided, this type of gutter
should be omitted and, as a substitute, a shallow cement or brick
gutter should be run around the foundation Avails and pitched to
drain at one corner into a sewer connection. ^
Insulating Basement Walls. — Where basement areas are to be
used in summer for living or recreational purposes, condensation
can be minimized or entirely eliminated by applying an insulating
material to the inner face of the foundation wall which will pre-
vent the contact of moisture-laden air with a colder surface.
This material may be corkboard (1)£ or 2)4 in- thick) or any
fibrous insulating board of related character. These insulating
materials can be applied to the inner surface of the brick wall,
either by embedding them in a plaster coat of cement mortar
or by the use of hot pitch or asphalt mastic.
Precaution should be taken at the same time to w r rap all cold-
w'ater lines with an insulating material, as a great deal of con-
densation forms on such pipes and diips on the floors.
Furring Basement Walls. — Another method of eliminating
condensation in livable basement areas is to fur the walls and
apply a plaster base and plaster finish in the customary manner
employed in the upper parts of the house. This w ill tend to pre-
vent condensation entirely, but if any does develop behind the
plaster, it will drip to the condensation gutter above described
and be carried away without causing dampness in the living areas.
TYPES OF BEARING AND NON-BEARING BRICK WALLS
Solid and Hollow' Walls
The following sections present basic data concerning types of
wall construction and standards of workmanship. They should
60
BRICK STRUCTURES
be referred to in connection with all subsequent data on wall
construction of any type.
Solid Brick Walls. — Solid brick walls are to be preferred over
any other form of unit masonry construction for almost every
condition of service. They offer maximum stability, strength,
durability, weather resistance, fire resistance, soundproofness,
and adaptability to future alterations. All other types of brick
wall construction must be considered as substitutes for solid
walls; their use is justified by economic considerations (including
enforced competition with inferior constructions) or by condi-
tions of service that do not require the superior merits of solid
walls.
Hollow Walls. — The Ideal wall is the general name used to
describe all types of hollow walls built with standard solid brick —
the universal and reliable burned-clay product — by placing some
or all the brick on edge. There are three types of Ideal walls, all
detailed in this publication, as follows:
Ideal Rolok-Bak walls.
Ideal all-Rolok walls.
Ideal all-Rolok walls in Flemish bond.
Only in the all-Rolok types does the exterior appearance of the
Ideal wall differ from the standard and traditional brickwork
with which all are familiar. In the other type — the Rolok-Bak
wall — the face of the wall may be worked out in any bond and
joint to suit the builder’s taste, and the complete wall has the
same appearance as a wall of solid brickwork.
Uses of the Ideal Wall. — Ideal walls are recommended for all
purposes where walls of hollow units of other materials than brick
are permitted under building-code regulations or by local cus-
tom. These purposes include basement wall construction, load-
bearing exterior and interior walls, isolated piers, and curtain and
interior partition walls.
Economy Wall. — The Economy wall is a Brick wall 4 in. thick,
blanketed with back mortaring, strengthened at intervals with
vertical pilasters, having brick corbeling for the support of floors
and roof, providing a 4-in. outside reveal for doors and windows,
and with every window and door frame bricked in.
This wall makes a scientific and highly efficient use of the
STRUCTURAL USES OF BRICK MASONRY 61
minimum amount of material that can properly be used in wall
construction. The cost is therefore kept down to the minimum.
That this Avail is the lowest cost masonry wall is only natural, for
brick is the cheapest manufactured material on the market.
Uses of the Economy Wall— The Economy wall is a type of
brick construction designed primarily for one- and two-story-
and-attic houses, for garages, filling stations, and many other
minor buildings. It is also excellent for garden walls, for
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and hollow walls.
property line Avails around large estates, or Avhere\^er a fence
might be required.
Vaulted Wall Construction. — A type of holloA\ r AA’all construction
much used in some localities on this continent and very frequently
in Europe consists of tAvo Avails of brick laid flat, separated
by a 2-in. air space and connected Avith metal ties. In this
country the Avail is generally constructed Avith a total thickness
of 10 in. A 14-in. thickness is sometimes employed. This Avail
is an excellent type of construction for residences but costs more
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62 BRICK STRUCTURES
than the 8-in. Ideal or solid wall and cannot be as strong as either
of these types.
This wall is built upon the same basic principle of the venti-
lated airspace as the Ideal wall, and its established and continued
use is but another proof of the soundness of this principle.
Fig. 30.
Furring is not required with a 10-in. wall of this construction,
except under the same limitations for intensely cold climates as
described for the Ideal wall.
DtGECT SECTION AT GOOF
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—
STRUCTURAL USES OF BRICK MASONRY
63
BUILDING CODES SHOULD PERMIT 8-IN. WALLS FOR
RESIDENCES
That a thickness of 8 in. for the brick walls of the usual home,
above the basement, is ample, both for the first and second stories,
is proved by recommendation of government authorities, by end-
less examples in practice, and by theory.
Government Advises 8-in. Thickness.— The Building-code
Committee of the U.S. Department of Commerce recommends
that 8-in. brick walls be allowed for the upper 30 ft. of exterior
walls of residences, with an additional allowance of 5 ft. for gables.
Foundation walls 12 in. thick are recommended for the excavated
portions and 8 in. thick for unexcavated portions of the basement.
Nevertheless, an 8-in. solid brick foundation wall for dwellings
is amply strong and amply stable (as a retaining wall) when the
weight resting upon it is the equivalent of at least 12 ft. of vertical
solid 8-in. wall. The greater the superimposed weight, the
greater the stability.
The 8-in. brick wall is enormously strong; it is unquestionably
firesafe; it now forms warm and dry walls for the homes of multi-
tudes of people and gives a man of small or average means free
choice of his building material without taxing his preference for
good construction. Building codes not already permitting this
thickness of brick wall should be amended so that both inside and
outside the fire zones the 8-in. solid or Ideal wall mil Hp allowed.
STANDARDS OF WORKMANSHIP
Bearing Walls. — The strength requirements of bearing walls
are well ensured by full, flat (notgrooved) bed joints, plumb walls,
and horizontal courses. When laid in common bond, headers
should be used in at least every sixth course. When maximum
strength is not required, headers every seventh course may be
used. It is not necessary to fill all vertical joints completely,
especially those between vertical tiers or withes of brickwork, to
obtain maximum compressive strength, but such vertical joint
filling is required for high transverse and shearing strengths.
Toothing should not be permitted if it can be avoided. How-
ever, it may be used in joining new' work to old. When used,
all joints in the toothing should be filled, not just buttered or
pointed on the outside. Careless work at such points may result
in w all leaks.
64
BRICK STRUCTURES
Wall anchors and other ties are set by the brick mason and
should be solidly bedded in mortar. It may be well also to
Fig. 31. Incompleted wall sections should be stopped in manner shown here.
CDl DC iL i i i i
1C \r == n
dc
dc
] gri
check their number and location and see that the plans and speci-
fications, or the provisions of
3 the local building code refer-
ring to their uses, are com-
plied with.
To prevent the penetration
of water or dampness into a
brick wall, all horizontal
joints in the exterior tier and
at least three-fourths of the
thickness of all vertical joints
must be filled with mortar.
Lack of proper joint filling is
the most common cause of
leaking brick walls. Suffi-
cient mortar must be used in
bed joints (preferably spread
flat) and each brick pushed
into place so that bed joints
are full. A common fault is
that vertical exposed joints
are only partly filled (by but-
tering the end of the brick);
often the vertical joint is no more than pointed with a thin
w'edge of mortar.
Care should be used in placing closure bricks, either viiole
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Fig. 32. — Toothing as shown here
should be avoided except where neces-
sary in bonding new work to old.
STRUCTURAL USES OF BRICK MASONRY
65
bricks or bats. See that they are cut small enough (when neces-
sary) to permit a full vertical joint at each end. And see that a
full end joint is laid, either by slushing or grouting.
The important thing in preventing leaking walls is to have all
joints in the exposed tier or withe filled with mortar, not too rich.
If this is done, the inner space, or spaces, between vertical withes
may be unfilled or open, thus furnishing an air space across which
the water will not travel, and also in some measure increasing
the thermal resistance of the wall.
Hollow walls of brick, with outer exposed joints well filled, are
highly resistive to water travel through the wall.
Curtain and Panel Walls. — The general provisions applying to
outer walls apply equally well to panel and curtain walls. In
addition, see that courses are properly laid out and the work is so
executed that the periphery, or boundary, of all such walls is
built solidly against the supporting framework. When the facing
course projects beyond the framing proper, angle or other sup-
ports should be used, and the facing, in all cases, should be
properly bonded to the backup.
It is usually necessary, and almost always desirable to build
flashing or other water-diverting members into spandrel walls.
The mason should see that this is not neglected.
Bonds and Patternwork. — A good workman will thoroughly
understand the bond specified for use and will see that it is carried
out with fidelity. He will lay out his work in advance so that
both horizontal and vertical joints come flush with window and
other wall openings with little or no cutting, and vertical joints
plumb and in line. All joints should be properly struck with the
trowel or pointer, as the case may require.
Brickwork courses should be laid out in advance, with proper
joint thicknesses, so that the work will come to the right heights
for the placing of window sills and lintels, doorheads and floor
levels, all with a uniform thickness of bed joints. Lack of uni-
formity may spoil the beauty of the work. Special care is neces-
sary in laying out the work when several workmen are building
the same wall. In this case, see that the line is horizontal, using
one or more trigs to prevent sagging of the line between distant
supports. See that bricklayers do not “crowd” the line, thus
causing the wall to look wavy.
Decorative Treatment. — In addition to carrying out bond work
GG
BRICK STRUCTURES
with fidelity, the mason should see that all decorative patterns
and other ornamental masonry features are installed as specified
or shown on the plans. All instructions applying to brickwork in
general apply with equal or greater force to ornamental work.
ELEVATION
DETAIL SHCWNC^SI
BONDING IN TYPICAL
WINDOW BAY, $
leKCLIPPfJ
DETAIL SHOWING VARIOUS
DESIGNS FOB WSTEBTABLES
fIMK
ISOMETRIC
P'DETAIL SHOWING PIPE
CHASES IN S' INTERIOR
BRICK PARTITION
jssaag*
COlFIXIWIMiJ
FoeacHERki/ix
'nottoonbwwj®
5EETurr Jgi
DETAILSHOWING BOND
IN FOOT! NO UNDER.
THWCALffXe'PIER
Ex^pfeifSocp
AND PORCH FIOCP PAVED WITH BRICK
Fig. 33.
WORKING WITH OTHER TRADES
Bricklayers should, at all times, keep in mind the requirements
of the other trades and so build into their work all the necessary
chases, nailing strips, and blocks. The back of the wall should
STRUCTURAL USES OF BRICK MASONRY
C>7
be smooth and plumb so as to facilitate furring, lathing, plaster-
ing, or other interior finish. Inattention to these points can be
very costly.
Leaving Openings and Chases.— The location of chimneys,
openings, and chases shown on the plans or otherwise necessary
should be carefully noted and all such items taken care of as the
wall goes up.
Pipes in Brick Walls. — Electric conduits, gas pipes, and small
water pipes may be built within a solid wall as it goes up, and
they can easily be placed in a sloping position in Ideal walls after
the latter are built.
Four-inch soil pipes may be brought down and concealed in
an 8-in. solid or Ideal interior brick wall. These pipes measure
6 in. over the hubs.
The method employed for a solid wall is to leave a chase 4^
in. deep where the soil pipe is to be placed. When the plumber
is ready to “ rough in” his work, a small section of brick about
in. wide and 1 in. deep is chipped out from the back of the
chase behind the exact location of the pipe unless the wall is to
be furred or stripped, when no chipping is required. Where the
hub of the pipe occurs one brick may be taken out entirely. Gas
and water pipes may also be run in these chases. The open side
of the chase is covered with wire lath and plastered with the rest
of the wall. The holes on the other side of the wall, where brick
were removed at the pipe hubs, should also be covered with wire
lath. (Fig. 33.)
In an Ideal all-Rolok wall the 4-in. soil pipe will fit the hollow
space with a little chipping, a brick being left out at the hubs.
Soil and water pipes should always be placed within interior
partitions to lessen the liability of freezing.
Duct Chases. — Hot-air ducts may also be set in 8-in. solid or
Ideal walls. I^eave a chase slightly wider than the width of the
tin ducts, and after the duct is set cover with wire lath. (Fig.
33.) Ducts run in brick walls do not need to be covered with
asbestos. As w r ith plumbing pipes, heat ducts should never be
run in outside walls.
Building in Nailing Blocks and Grounds. — When building
Ideal avails, build in nailing blocks for the carpenters to attach
base and trim. These blocks can be small pieces of 2 by 4.
For attaching furring strips to solid Avails, build in plasterers'
68
BRICK STRUCTURES
lath in the joints about every seventh course, well backed with
mortar and slightly projecting; break joints of lath.
Furring. — Under favorable conditions in some localities plaster
may be applied directly to the inside of 8-in. solid and hollow
brick walls. Generally speaking, however, it is safer to fur the
inside of any ordinary exterior 8-in. masonry wall.
Fig. 34. — Details of hollow walls at floor and roof levels, showing typical joist
and roof supports.
In hollow brick walls a few openings left in the inner withe of
the wall below the first floor and also at the top of the wall,
admitting circulation of air through the cavity of the wall,
reduces the danger of moisture reaching the inner surface of the
unfurred wall.
Furring may be of wood, metal, or hollow tile. Wood is
ordinarily used, formed of 1- by 2-in. strips placed vertically,
spaces 16 in. on center. In the cheapest work the strips are
nailed into dry mortar joints; in better work, to lath placed by the
STRUCTURAL USES OF BRICK MASONRY
69
masons in the joints, or the walls may be plugged with wood plugs
left projecting and sawed off so that the strips will lie in an even
plane, thus correcting any irregularities in the surface of the wall.
Nailing to lath or to plugs also makes a more secure job than
nailing into brick joints. The strips should be trued up where
necessary by wedging behind them. Recent investigations show
that furring strips placed horizontally will conserve heat in cold
weather and also make effectual fire stops.
Split furring tile 3 or 4 in. thick, which are scored so that they
can be split in half, are sometimes used. The tile is set without
mortar and anchored at every second course by driving tenpenny
nails into the mortar joints over every third tile. Tile provides a
good surface upon which to plaster.
Metal furring is sometimes employed when metal lath is used.
It may consist of small steel rods or stiffening members in the
metal lath.
BUILDING CAVITY WALLS OF BRICK
Advantages of Hollow Walls
For certain kinds of structures and under some conditions the
solid brick wall possesses an excess of strength and of fire resist-
ance. This fact led to the development of hollow walls of
standard solid brick, (known as Ideal walls), which reduce
construction costs and at the same time give the remarkable
advantages that always accompany the use of this ancient and
dependable standard building unit.
Although thought to be new when introduced in 1924, it was
found later that examples of this construction existed in nearly
every part of the world where brick is used. Walls built in this
fashion more than 200 years ago have been located and examined.
Ideal Walls Always Economical. — The only advantage that
applies always to any type of hollow wall as compared to a solid
brick wall is that the hollow wall is lighter than the solid. The
question of the economy of hollow unit walls is a local one, inas-
much as they actually cost more than solid brick construction in
some localities. But with the Ideal wall the economy advantage
applies everywhere because, although it is built of the same
material as the solid wall, it requires a smaller quantity. The
saving varies according to the type of Ideal wall decided upon.
Advantages of the Ideal Wall. — Experience has indicated that
70
BRICK STRUCTURES
Ideal hollow wall construction possesses the following advantages
and characteristics:
}■ Lowest cost masonry wall possible to build for construction
8 in. thick and over.
2. Strongest hollow masonry wall.
3. Most highly fire-resistive hollow wall — not damaged by long
exposure to high temperatures or water used in extinguishing fires
4. The driest hollow masonry wall.
5. Contains thickest withes and has a large percentage of solids
to voids.
6. Lighter in weight than the average hollow unit wall of
brick substitutes.
7. Built of standard brick — no special sizes or shapes.
8. Bonds perfectly with any facing material.
GENERAL CONSTRUCTION DATA ON HOLLOW WALLS
Supporting Floors and Roofs.— Floor joists and roof construc-
tion should rest directly upon a header course. In most cases
the header course can be made to come at the exact height
required. If not, the header course can simply be brought up as
nearly as possible to that height, the remaining height to the
bottom of the joists being filled in with the necessary number of
courses of solid brickwork to give the joists a firm bearing.
Setting the joists upon a header course also provides an effec-
tive fire stop.
Anchors. — While the necessity for using anchors to form a
positive tie between floor and roof timbers and the masonry is no
greater with the Ideal wall than with any other type of masonry
construction, the use oi such anchors is emphatically recom-
mended by many experienced brick contractors. It is realized
that the practice of using such anchors is more honored in the
breach than in the observance; but when some natural calamity
such as a tornado visits a community, it has been repeatedly
shown that buildings in which anchors and other features of good
construction have been conscientiously used come through prac-
tically unscathed. Small portions of the Ideal wall in which
anchors are to be embedded can easily be made solid. In addi-
tion to anchoring floors and roofs, it is recommended that
parapet walls be also substantially anchored to the construction.
Earthquake Construction— It should be pointed out that in
STRUCTURAL USES OF BRICK MASONRY
71
earthquake zones anchors are vital to the safety of the building.
Girders, joists, and roof timbers should be anchored securely to
the brick walls. Buildings so constructed will withstand earth-
MMKIWMN
'Exterior- corners
•G INI DEAL ALL-ROLOK- WALL
•0 BRICK PtR SRFT'W WAU.
MOTtl-POSlTIVl BREAK- IN- MORTAR-JOINTi
•MQ MATtRlAflh tXRRCTCONTACT TltRU WAUi'
VEN7ILATIN0A/RSR«ce- ^
•WALLI8DWY,WAR*ANDCOMfCRTA6Le-
1W3IPC ,
OUTSIDE
•PLAN or COURSE -CT
PLANOFCOURSE-C'
DIRECT Section.
EXTERIOR CORNERS-
lEl^fe-IN- IDEAL ALL-ROLOK- WALL-
OP DRiCK PER- so ttc^ WAU--
•GEE^LTERNATE i
construction
Fig. 35.
quake shocks without serious structural damage, as attested by
numerous studies.
Window and Door Sills and Jambs. — Window and door sills
(brick on edge or stone) are placed, and the frames set, plumbed,
and braced upon them in the ordinary way, exactly as with the
solid wall.
72
BRICK STRUCTURES
The frames are bricked in at the jambs also, exactly as with the
solid wall.
Although not necessary for strength, it is recommended that
the portion of the hollow space or spaces adjacent to the frame
Fig. 36.
be filled for a width of 3 or 4 in. with brickbats to provide fire
and draft stopping.
Exposed brick may be supported over openings by either of the
usual methods of using lintels or arches.
STRUCTURAL USES OF BRICK MASONRY
73
For openings not exceeding the usual window or door widths,
follow the same method employed in solid brick construction — ■
that of placing 4- by 4-in. or 4- by 6-in. wood lintels to support
the backing. The lintels have a 4-in. bearing on the brickwork
r DETAILAT ROOF PLATE-
I DEAL ALL-RDLOK WALL'.
DETAIL AT ROOF PLATE
1 DEAL- ROLOK-EAK-WALL.
I JOIST
WMME
DIRECT SECTIONO-
hmumc Piaca
rM onviH- |> -
DETAIL5 OF JOI5T-BEARINQ-
; I DEAL ROLOK-BAK WALL>A^i
• DETAI LS • OF J0I5T-E) EARING -
IDEAL ALL-ROLOKWALL<f<
IBffilll!
Fig. 37 .
at each end. Brickwork either flat or on edge will arch itself
over such an opening even after the wood lintel shrinks or is
entirely destroyed by fire.
For wider openings the backing may rest on a steel lintel of
74
BRICK STRUCTURES
proper size to support the load; or a wood lintel may be employed
*ith a relieving arch over. A small portion of the brickwork at
the spring line can be made solid to take the thrust, or the arch
can spring irom a header course. The space between the top
Fig. 38 .
of the wood lintel and the bottom of the relieving arch is bricked
m with brick on edge, the top of the brickwork being roughly
shaped to the proper curve and forming a center for the relieving
arch.
ooTatoeviEwa-ioEAL
ROLOK-0AKWALL-5«0Wm0-
■C3CNERMN COMMON BOND'
'KtAPMo tvtRY w-coutise- -NCRDcas'eveQY
WKtClStcpCH
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-8-W- ioealsoidk-bak WALL-
-header* EVERY6a<ou«6e - • ioHl
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• dfADtey- £VtC.Y ■ 6U-COUtl/t-
©A/eMONT- WALL-ia'/fc w rN.CK-
• H «-rf- STC*LY • WA l L • <MM ■ TN IC K-
(I HZ' I DC VICW;
STRUCTURAL USES OF BRICK MASONRY
It should be emphasized that the foregoing methods are the
traditional and ordinary methods of carrying brickwork over
openings; the Ideal wall introduces nothing new or unusual in
this portion of the construction.
Fig. 39 .
Steel reinforcing rods (J4 in - m diameter) laid in the lower
mortar joints develop ample beam strength for carrying the
masonry loads above wall openings.
Mortar should be slushed over the top of wood window and
76
BRICK STRUCTURES
door frames within the hollow space for the same purpose that
the space is filled at the jambs to provide fire and draft stopping.
Window and Door Frames. — Stock window and door frames in
Rolok-Bak walls can have the same outside reveal and x-elation
to the inside plaster line as in the ordinary wall.
In the case of 8-in. all-Rolok walls, the outside reveal can be
made 2j^ in. wide — the width of a brick on edge. A piece of
finish wood is placed between the inside face of the frame and
the back of the trim at jamb and head as shown.
Mortar. — It is recommended that mortar of no less strength
than 1:1:6 cement-lime mortar be used in constructing Ideal
walls.
Thickness of Walls. — In the absence of code regulation, the
following minimum thicknesses are recommended. Basement
walls for masonry houses, 12 in. thick (or 8-in. solid walls).
First-, second-, and third-floor walls for masonry houses, 8 in.
thick. Basement walls for frame houses, 8 in. thick.
CONSTRUCTION OF ROLOK-BAK WALLS
General Description.— The Rolok-Bak wall is a general utility
wall and may be employed not only for exposed walls but for
unexposed walls and for basement construction. It forms a
superior base for stucco where that finish is particularly desired,
and for plaster in interior walls.
The exterior 4-in. thickness is laid with brick placed flat and
the backing is laid of brick on edge. On the exterior, therefore,
the brickwork has the usual appearance of brickwork laid in the
traditional way and may be faced in any bond. The wall may
be 8 in. thick or in multiples of additional 4 in. thicknesses.
In the 12-in. thickness, there are two types of the Rolok-Bak
wall — the standard and the heavy duty.
In the standard Rolok-Bak wall, the flat header course is
arranged in basket-weave bond so that it ties the whole wall
together, as shown clearly in the illustrations. This allows the
greatest saving in cost both in labor and material. A flat header
course is laid with less labor than a solid header course on edge,
and the wall requires fewer brick and less mortar per square foot.
The standard Rolok-Bak wall is designed for bearing walls of
buildings in the multiple residential and other classes where a
1 2-in. thickness of wall is required and floor loads are moderate,
STRUCTURAL USES OF BRICK MASONRY
77
such as apartment buildings, hospitals, clubs, office occupancies,
etc.
The heavy-duty Rolok-Bak wall is designed for situations
where heavy floor loads are to be carried.
Fig. 40. — The Rolok-Bak wall does not reveal its construction on the exterior, its
surface appearance being identical with that of the solid wall.
The heavy-duty wall is constructed by building the withes of
the backing of three courses of stretchers on edge, the fourth
course being a continuous course of headers on edge. On this
course is laid a continuous course of flat headers, to tie the facing
to the backing, with a flat stretcher fill behind it.
78
BRICK STRUCTURES
Appearance. 1 he Ideal Rolok-Bak wall has exactly the same
exterior appearance as ordinary brickwork.
While the illustrations show this type of construction in com-
mon bond, any of the other bonds may be used instead. Even
with the solid brick wall, when the more elaborate bonds such
as Flemish, English, English cross, etc., are used, all headers not
I u;. 41. The 12-in. all-Rolok wall is a sturdy structure with two air spaces
inside the wall.
necessary for strength are bats not extending through into the
backing. The bricklayer can save much time by building the
outside 4-in. thickness “ header high,” afterward backing up.
The same method of forming these more elaborate bonds by using
bats is followed when building the Rolok-Bak wall.
The Flat Header Course— Every seventh course of brick laid
flat is a header course, to bond the facing to the backing.
Most building codes require this course to consist entirely of
headers, a “ continuous header course.” Other codes permit
STRUCTURAL USES OF BRICK MASONRY
79
42— House at Dobbs Ferry, N. Y.. with all-Rolok walls, Flemish bond.
0 Courtesy of Theodore Meyer, Architect.)
1 ig. 43. The sturdy 8-in. all-Rolok wall consists of alternate headers and
stretchers on edge.
80
BRICK STRUCTURES
In 8-in. Rolok-Bak, 6 courses,
on exterior withe equals in
height 4 courses on edge
Standard 12-in. Rolok-Bak with
interior withes 4 courses high,
upon which flat header course
tis laid in "basket weave"
In heavy-duty 12-in. Rolok-
Bak, 2 center withes are
3 courses high, instead of
4 courses, upon which is
placed a solid header
course, on edge
After building outside withe
6 courses high, brick flat,
mason builds inside withes
on edge to same height
Fig. 44. — Details of construction of Rolok-Bak wall in 8-in., 12-in., standard and
12-in. heavy-duty types.
STRUCTURAL USES OF BRICK MASONRY
81
this course to consist of headers and stretchers placed alternately
— a “ Flemish header course.”
The continuous header course is shown in these illustrations,
except in the standard 12-in. wall.
The header course tying the two withes of the backing together
in the 12-in. heavy-duty wall is shown as a continuous header
course on edge, as this provides maximum strength.
Constructing the 8-in. Wall. — The bricklayer first lays six
flat courses on the outside face of the wall. He then lays four
courses on edge to form the inside withe. Six flat courses equal
four courses on edge in height. He then places the header course.
Material Required, 8-in. Wall. — This wall requires 7 exposed
bricks and 3^ backing bricks per sq. ft.
Constructing the 12 -in. Standard Wall. — The six flat courses
outside are first placed as for the 8-in. wall.
The center and inside withes are then built together according
to the ordinary practice in the backing of brickwork, each four
courses high.
The bricks for the center withe are placed against the back of
the outside 4-in. withe, which thus forms a guide for the center
withe. No mortar is placed in the vertical joint between the
outside and the center withes.
Then the flat header course is placed, to tie the wall together.
It is suggested that this course be backed up as each 8-in. length
is placed. The headers are laid basket- weave fashion, one pair
of headers being placed at the face of the wall, backed up by a
stretcher; then a stretcher is placed at the face of the wall, backed
by a pair of headers.
It is important to stagger the position of the pairs of exposed
headers with respect to their position in the header course below.
Occasionally a bat should be used in place of a whole brick in
the header course to permit slight circulation of air within the
wall, as a means of drying out internal condensation or moisture.
This wall requires 6.6 exposed bricks and 8.4 backing bricks
per sq. ft.
Building the 12-in. Heavy-duty Wall. — This wall has some-
what greater load-bearing capacity. It is constructed exactly
like the standard wall except that the center and inside withes
are built only three courses high.
Next the header course tying these two withes together is
82
BRICK STRUCTURES
placed. This is a continuous course of Rolok headers. The
bricks in this header course need not have the vertical joints
between them filled with mortar.
Then the flat header course is placed, consisting of a continuous
header course on the outside face with a course of stretchers
behind it.
This wall requires 7 exposed bricks and 8.8 backing bricks per
6q. ft
CONSTRUCTION OF ALL-ROLOK WALLS
lx Common Bond
General Description. — The all-Rolok wall is a general utility
Avail; it may be employed for exposed and unexposed walls, both
bearing and non-bearing, and for basement construction. It
forms a perfect base for stucco, where a stucco finish is particu-
larly desired, and for plaster where used as an interior Avail.
The attention of architects and structural engineers is espe-
cially drawn to this Avail on account of its low cost and light
weight, and the opportunity it affords (in common Avith the
Rolok-Bak wall) for impressive savings in the amount of steel
required to support the exterior or interior walls of a skeleton
frame building.
The wall is built Avith two courses entirely of stretchers on edge,
alternating with one course of flat headers. To the architectural
designer it offers opportunities for neAV and interesting effects.
No other form of masonry construction 8 in. or more in thick-
ness can compete Avith this Avail in low cost, not only for exposed
Avails but also for basement and unexposed Avails, such as enclos-
ing Avails around stainvays, etc.
This wall also has the great advantage of exposing to the
Aveather not only a minimum thickness of 234 m - °f solid brick
units in its outside withe, but in addition both horizontal and per-
pendicular exposed mortar joints haA T e the same solid thickness.
Position of the Header Course. — Placing the headers eA~ery
third course as shown in the illustrations gives an interest ing effect
to an exposed wall, develops maximum strength, and expedites
the construction in cold or A\ r et weather or where an impervious
type of brick is used.
When light loads only are to be supported, and when a brick
STRUCTURAL USES OF BRICK MASONRY
83
with average absorption is used, one or two additional courses on
edge may be placed safely between header courses.
Constructing the 8-in. Wall.— The bricklayers first lays two
courses of continuous stretchers to form the outside withe and
then two courses of continuous stretchers to form the inside
withe. He then places the flat header course.
Material Required, 8-in. Wall.— This wall requires 9 bricks
per sq. ft. of which 6 bricks are exposed in outside walls.
Constructing the 12-in. Wall. — The three withes are con-
structed, each two courses high. The header course consists of
pairs of headers laid flat, basket-weave bond, with a stretcher
placed alternately on the inside and outside of the wall.
The center withe is not placed in the center of the wall, but at
the end of the headers which show on the outside face of the wall.
The same suggestions are made as to the building of the center
withe and the placing of the header course as in the case of the
12-in. standard Rolok-Bak wall.
Material Required, 12-in. Wall —This wall requires 133^
bricks per sq. ft. of which 6 bricks are exposed per sq. ft. in out-
side walls.
In Flemish Bond
General Description. — This wall is primarily intended for
exposed walls. It is very strong construction, however, "sand is
much used for basement work and for interior walls.
It is constructed entirely of brick on edge laid in Flemish bond
lor the outside 8-in. thickness. For thicker walls a withe of
stretchers on edge is added for each additional 4-in. thickness.
The all-Rolok Avail previously described corresponds roughly to
traditional brickwork laid in common bond, and the all-Rolok
wall in Flemish bond here described corresponds to traditional
brickwork in Flemish bond. With Flemish bond, whether flat
or on edge, the labor cost is higher than with the simpler bonds,
such as common bond or the all-Rolok Avail, because the latter
can be built more rapidly.
Appearance. — The exposed face of the Flemish bond all-Rolok
wall has a surprisingly distinctive appearance. Where the rough
or wire-cut surface of the stretchers is exposed in combination
with the smooth end of the headers this produces an effective
and charming appearance.
84
BRICK STRUCTURES
Building the 8-in. Wall. — The wall is built by laying headers
and stretchers alternately and backing up at every course.
The headers in each course are placed over the center of the
stretchers of the course below.
The 8-in. thickness of this wall must be laid “pick and dip”
fashion; hence, it is slower to lay than the other types of Ideal
wall.
Material Required, 8-in. Wall. — This wall requires 9 bricks
per sq. ft., of which 6 bricks are exposed in outside w r alls.
Building the 12-in. Wall. — The outside 8-in. thickness is built
as above, three courses high.
One course is then placed on the outside withe. This consists
of stretchers and bats alternately, the bats being used to pre-
serve the bond.
The inside withe is then built three courses high entirely of
stretchers.
A solid header course of brick on edge is then placed to tie the
inside withe to the outside 8-in. thickness.
When building the outside 8-in. thickness, a 4-in. shelf is left
inside on which the mason can store up brick. This partly
eliminates the pick and dip method which is necessary when the
completed wall is to b£ 8 in. thick and consequently allows the
mason to lay more brick per day.
The same suggestions are made as to the mortar joints in the
solid header course as in the case of the solid header course in the
heavy-duty Rolok-Bak wall.
Material Required, 12-in. Wall. — This wall requires 13.75
bricks per sq. ft., of which 6 bricks are exposed in outside walls.
ECONOMY WALLS: 4-IN. PIER AND PANEL TYPE
General Description. — The Economy or “pier and panel”
wall is a 4-in. wall built of brick laid flat in common bond sup-
ported at suitable intervals by pilasters 8 in. thick or by piers
8 or 12 in. square. It is designed primarily for one-story cot-
tages, garages, filling stations, and other minor buildings but
may also be used for two-story-and-attic structures where build-
ing codes permit, or where the least expensive type of masonry
construction is demanded. It makes an excellent garden or
boundary wall.
Economy Wall in Buildings. — When the Economy w all is used
STRUCTURAL USES OF BRICK MASONRY
85
for building purposes, the 4-in. panels are supported by pilasters
on the inner side of the wall, giving to its exterior surface the
appearance of solid-brick construction in common bond (except
that the bond is interrupted by headers at the pilaster points).
The pilasters are spaced face to face at lengths of 4^ brick
COUOjSE "f*
COUCLSE ‘V
3
yZ\4'OQ. Z\&‘
Cl/fltOED QA &IU.-U/Y//
Oft •SEVEHTH QOUftSE -
COUCtSE t” HEADED. COUDSE VCLO<SECL
APPRQX. \OVi'
APPROX. 3—2 ¥?
COUD5E lET
_ __
Fig. 45. — Plan showing construction of Economy wall by courses. Pilasters
should be spaced to give 8-in. solid construction around all windows and doors.
stretchers and are made 8 in. in total thickness and 8 in. in width.
The pilasters are bonded to the piers by through headers every
sixth course.
The back of wall panels between pilasters should normally be
back mortared to increase their weather tightness and insulating
value.
Construction Details. — The illustrations on these pages indi-
86
BRICK STRUCTURES
cate the essential features of construction of the Economy wall.
(1) Solid 8-in. construction around the jambs of windows and
doors, and at sills, girts, and plates.
(2) Use of 2- by 2-in. furring strips between pilasters and
%- by 1 %-h\. furring strips over pilasters and other solid brick
parts to carry the plaster base and interior finish.
W) ^2X2 P-UH.MN6'
bWhEN FURR. I NO OCCURJS AT^
p-ii^aTe*.
PLAN
Fig. 46. — Typical elevation of Economy wall (with back mortar omitted),
showing application of furring strips and key to courses, Fig. 45
(3) A special method of bonding for maximum strength and
minimum use of brick.
Pier and Panel Walls. — A similar construction employing
piers instead of pilasters, or piers in combination with pilasters,
makes an ideal property fence or garden wall. In many sections
of the country, a wall of this type can be built as cheaply as fenc-
STRUCTURAL USES OF BRICK MASONRY
87
ing the property with a woven steel wire fence, with the added
advantage of far greater beauty, durability, and seclusion. It
can be built in serpentine design.
F ig. 47 —Three types of pier and panel 4-in. wall. The middle type is standard
Economy wall.
I ig. 48. Method of reinforcing 4-in. wall construction for lateral strength,,
using welded wire mesh, strips of metal lath or light rods.
Free-standing walls of this type may be built in two ways—
plain construction or reinforced. In the former, a 4-in. panel is
built up of brick laid flat in common bond between piers 8 or 12
in. wide and 12 in. thick. The distance between piers depends
upon the height of the wall and the required degree of lateral
88
BRICK STRUCTURES
strength or stiffness. If, for design purposes, the piers are to be
spaced at wide intervals, the back of the wall may be reinforced
at intermediate points with the 8-in. pilasters, which do not show
upon the outer face.
Reinforced Pier and Panel Walls. — For greater lateral strength,
permitting wider spacing of piers and panels and the use of some-
what fewer brick, these walls may be reinforced by embedding
in the horizontal mortar beds strips of welded wire mesh or
expanded metal 3 in. wide. This wire reinforcement should be
as continuous as possible, extending through the piers or pilasters.
It is seldom necessary to use reinforcement in every course,
adequate strength being added to the wall by reinforcing every
fourth to sixth course.
REINFORCED BRICKWORK FOR STRUCTURAL PURPOSES
Nature of Reinforced Brickwork. — Whereas brickwork has
heretofore been designed and used for carrying compressive loads
only, the use of reinforcement permits it to develop very great
flexural strength and so to resist lateral loads.
Reinforced brickwork is in all essential respects the same as
reinforced concrete. Steel reinforcing rods are placed in the
structure in the proper position to resist tensile stresses, the
brickwork taking the compressive stress.
It might appear that the mortar joints in brick would consti-
tute planes of weakness, but in practice and in laboratory experi-
ments, this has been found not to be so. There is ample bond
strength between steel and mortar and between bricks and mortar
to enable the structure to function according to our present
accepted theories.
Since brickwork is just as strong in compression as other
masonry materials and since the tensile strength of steel is the
same in any case, the transverse or bending strength of rein-
forced brickwork is the same as other kinds of similar design and
size. The use of reinforced brickwork should be widely extended,
especially wfliere appearance is a factor.
Types of Construction and Common Applications. — The types
of construction that have been most used are slabs (one or more
bricks in thickness), rectangular and T beams, and various com-
binations of these elemental types.
Reinforced brickwork has been used in a wide variety of struc-
STRUCTURAL USES OF BRICK MASONRY
89
tures for the following purposes: Floor slabs (either plain or com-
bined with reinforced brickwork beams), roof slabs, porch and
balcony floors (including overhanging cantilevers), stairways both
plain and spiral, porch floors and steps, walls and columns, and
especiallv in structures of circular plan, such as silos and storage
bins.
Fig. 49. — Storage bins, silos, and all circular structures can be simply and
economically built with reinforced brickwork. These bins were built by Wedron
Silica Company, Wedron, 111.
Materials and Construction. — Obviously the necessary mate-
rials are bricks, mortar (either cement or cement lime), steel
reinforcement (rods or mesh), and supporting centering.
Reinforced brickwork possesses the distinct advantage over
reinforced concrete that all brickwork built in a vertical plane
requires no forms, the reinforcement being placed as the work
proceeds.
90
BRICK STRUCTURES
For construction in a horizontal or inclined plane, watertight
forms are not necessary, simple centering for supporting the
brickwork being all that is needed.
It is essential that the brickwork be well done, with all joints
filled, and that the centering remain in place until the mortar
Uig. 50. — Railroad trestle supported by reinforced brickwork, built without
forms.
has set, in order that the structure may give satisfactory per-
formance.
Design of Reinforced Brickwork. — More complete informa-
tion, including methods of design and illustrations of typical
constructions, together with the results of field and laboratory
tests, will be found in “ Brick Engineering: Handbook of Design,”
by Harry C. Plummer and Leslie J. Reardon.
Brick Arch Construction. — An older and more common type
STRUCTURAL USES OF BRICK MASONRY
91
of reinforced structural brickwork is to be found in the brick
arch construction of floors and vaults.
Fireproof Brick Floors. — The use of brick arch construction
is worthy of the serious attention of architects and engineers
for general floor construction and for vaults. The brick arch
floor is about the strongest type of floor arch for the span it
occupies; the type shown in (.4) Fig. 51, is probably the most
fire resistive of any system that can be employed.
In this type of floor, the flanges of the beams are protected
by terra cotta skewbacks. Similar construction, but with
exposed tie rods, is employed for the floors of the principal stories
of the Government Printing Office at Washington, D.C.
Experiments show that brick arches will stand very severe
pounding and a great deal of stress without failure.
Arches need not be more than 4 in. thick for spans up to
between 6 and 8 ft. (the most desirable span), if the haunches
are filled with concrete level with the top of the arch. Tie rods
should always be employed.
A 4-in. brick arch, 6-ft. span, well grouted and leveled off
with concrete, should safely carry 300 to 400 lb. per sq. it. The
weight of this floor without the concrete fill is about 40 lb. per
sq. ft.
To lay this floor in the most economical way, the brick may
be laid upon the centering touching each other at the soffit, the
wedge-shaped joints being filled with grout.
Size and Spacing of Tie Rods, — Tie rods are employed to
prevent the beams being pushed apart, especially in the outer
bays. They should run from beam to beam from one end of
the floor to the other. If the outer arches spring from an angle,
as in Fig. 51, the tie rods in this bay should be anchored in the
wall with large plate washers.
Rods should be located in the line of thrust, ordinarily below
the half depth of the beams and in some cases near the bottom
92
BRICK STRUCTURES
flanges. Arches should be designed, however, so that the rods
will be protected from fire by keeping them above the soffit of
the arches. This also gives a better appearance.
Rods are spaced generally in the proportion of eight times
the depth of the supporting beams, but never more than 8 ft.
on center. Their size should be proportioned to the horizontal
thrust of the arches.
For more complete data on the strength of fireproof brick
floors and for formulae and tables for proportioning of tie rods,
see '/Kidder's Architects' and Builders' Handbook."
CHAPTER IV
CONSTRUCTION OTHER THAN EXTERIOR WALLS
FIREPROOFING STRUCTURAL-STEEL MEMBERS WITH
BRICK MASONRY
To meet building-code requirements, structural steel requires
the protection of a suitable fire- and heat-resistive material, of
which the most common forms are brick, concrete, clay tile, and
gypsum. The purpose of this protection is to retard or prevent
the development of temperatures that will impair the structural
strength of the steel members. Obviously the most important
members requiring protection are columns, because their failure
would bring down a large part of the structure; next in importance
are girders, beams, and floor joists, in order.
Advantages of Brickwork. — Of the materials used to protect
structural-steel members, “ brick is by long odds the most effi-
cient, when properly made and properly used” (Report on San
Francisco Earthquake and Fire, by A. L. Himmelwright, C.E.).
Brick is particularly suitable for the fireproofing of steel
columns because it eliminates the need for concrete forms, because
the small units are readily adapted to enclosing any size column
without procuring special shapes, and particularly because brick
of good quality is given a very high fire-resistive rating for such
uses.
Brickwork is not so well adapted to the fireproofing of hori-
zontal members except when employed to form load-bearing
floors in the form of segmental brick arches, as described on a
preceding page under the heading Fireproof Brick Floors.
Bonding or fastening brickwork to the underside of steel is not
easily done.
Methods of Fireproofing Steel Columns. — A thoroughly satis-
factory method of fireproofing a steel column is to enclose it with
4 in. of hard-burned common brick in a single withe around the
column and to fill the space inside with mortar and broken bricks
(bats) when necessary.
93
94
BRICK STRUCTURES
A common method is to brick in the webs of the column with
bats or whole brick and mortar and to surround the exterior faces
of the column with a withe of hard-burned brick all laid up
together.
Where building codes require 2 in. or less of fireproofing, the
outside withe can be laid rolok, forming a protection approxi-
mately 234 in. thick. In using brick for this purpose, effort
should be made to secure good bonds at the corners by over-
lapping the brick as shown in the accompanying illustration.
Very light reinforcing rods, bent to a
right angle and laid in the horizontal
bed joints around the corners, will add
greatly to bond strength. These rods
need be used only every other course or
even less often. Fitting of the brick by
cutting to length or by the use of bats
should largely be confined to the center
of each face of the column, but joints
should be broken at intervals by the use
of a whole brick across the center.
Spandrel Beam Fireproofing. — Ex-
terior horizontal beams between outside
columns are frequently fireproofed on the
outside by filling against the web with
brick, while the inside face and soffit may be fireproofed with
concrete cast with the floor slab. This permits effective anchor-
age and bonding of exterior masonry of stone or brick as the
work is carried up on the outside. The use of brick for this
purpose also facilitates the introduction of the all-important
spandrel waterproofing.
FIRE WALLS AND PARTY WALLS
Definition of Party, Fire, and Division Walls. — A 'party wall
separates two adjacent buildings and is adapted for joint service
by adjoining buildings.
A fire wall subdivides a building so as to resist the spread of
fire, by starting at the foundation and extending continuously
through all stories to and above the roof.
Division walls subdivide a building or buildings, usually to
Fig. 62 . — Brick-column
protection. Some codes
permit 2^-in. protection
by placing brick on edge.
CONSTRUCTION OTHER THAN EXTERIOR WALLS 95
resist the spread of fire, but are not necessarily continuous
through all stories and the roof.
Authorities Recommend Solid Brick— For walls of these
classes, the solid brick wall is found in every building code of our
cities, in the code recommended by the National Board of Fire
Underwriters, and is recommended by all authorities on building
construction and fire prevention.
Buildings of large area should be divided into separate sections
by fire walls, thus reducing the liability to one fire and giving an
opportunity to place hazardous goods in one section and less
hazardous goods elsewhere.
Fire Walls. L ire walls may be solid or hollow but, in any case,
should be thick enough and so constructed as to meet the require-
ments of building codes.
These requirements are now more often stated in terms of
hourly resistance periods.
Brickwork over openings in fire walls (for fire doors, etc.) must
be properly supported by steel members or by reinforcement in
the brickwork, to carry all superimposed loads. Solid brick
walls are best.
Party Walls. — Party walls, when also acting as fire walls, must
meet fire-wall code requirements. They must also satisfy the
legal requirements of joint use. Legal authorities agree that
solid brick walls best meet such requirements, for they can be
altered to accommodate changes in one side without violating the
rights of the adjacent joint owner of the walls.
Enclosures and Fire Towers. — Stairways, elevators, and other
shafts or openings extending from one floor to another should be
enclosed in brick walls extending above the roof.
Fire towers should either be placed so that one side is formed
by an exterior wall and provided with an outside balcony, acces-
sible from each story on both sides of the tower, or the tower may
be constructed within the building, connecting with an outside
vestibule open to the weather, the vestibule having openings at
each story closed with fire doors.
FIRE STOPPING IN BRICK AND FRAME BUILDINGS
Xo one feature of frame construction will contribute more to
its safety in case of fire than efficient, well-placed fire stops.
1 heir purpose is to delay the spread of fire by preventing drafts
96
BRICK STRUCTURES
through floors and walls and so assist in confining the fire to the
story or room in which it starts.
Brick is a superior material for fire stopping in any type of
construction. It may be used with brick masonry walls or frame
walls, floors, and partitions. For this purpose almost any sort
of bricks will serve, such as salmon brick, or chipped, broken,
or other defective bricks, providing sufficient mortar is used to
fill all joints and interstices.
As wood studs are only 3% in. wide, the space between them
will not permit ordinary brick to be laid flatwise. In such cases
Fig. 53. — Typical method of using brick for fire stopping in frame construc-
tion. (A) at sill line; (B) between joists resting on brick partition; (C) between
joists and studs in a typical interior partition; (D) at eaves.
the brick should be laid on edge on the inner line of fire stopping
and the space between the brick and the sheathing filled with
mortar. When fire stopping a partition resting on a girder or
the cap of the partition below, the bricks can be laid flatwise
nearly up to floor level and then be laid edgewise with sufficient
mortar on the side or sides to fill the space in the partition.
Where to Use Fire Stopping. — Fire stopping should be arranged
to cut off all concealed draft openings of combustible construction
and form an effectual horizontal fire barrier between stories.
Furred Walls . — All brick w r alls furred with w r ood should be
built with the brick between the ends of wooden beams projecting
the thickness of the furring beyond the inner face of the wall for
the full depth of the beams; or a double course of bricks above
and below the beams should be laid to project beyond the face
of the w r all the full thickness of the furring. Where a furred
wall is offset from a thicker to a thinner wall, beam filling of
brick should be placed betw r een the joists to the subfloor level.
CONSTRUCTION OTHER THAN EXTERIOR WALLS 97
Frame Walls . — In frame buildings, all stud walls should be
completely fire stopped with brickwork at each floor level. The
space between the studs should be filled to a height of 4 in. above
the floor level.
Partitions . — Where stud partitions rest directly over each
other and cross wooden floor beams at any angle, they should be
run down between the floor beams and rest on the top plate of the
partition below and should have the space between the studs
filled in solid to at least 4 in. above each floor level with brick
and mortar.
Roofs . — Brick filling formed in mortar should also be placed
between the rafters above the roof plate and the slope of the roof
sheathing. This also acts as a wind stop and makes the house
more comfortable in winter.
In short, brick and mortar should be used to block every point
in a masonry or frame building where drafts may circulate from
one space to another, behind studding furring strips, or through
the spaces between floor joists or rafters. Fire stops should also
be placed where woodwork joins chimney construction, as indi-
cated in chimney details.
PARAPET WALLS
Proper design, the use of hard-burned brick only, and careful
workmanship on parapet walls are most important, for such
Note- AH brick
must be laid on,
full, /lot be da not
orerjfc'lkick All
vertical Joints
alusI be complete -
ly filled
copiny w material other Ikon, cl
' dJsl burnt clay product, the use of
a membrane, fjc* narroever than
the trail, JZ Oy. copper or roof
iny material, is advisable
/feather Struck Joints
Fig. 54.-
f. copper /Loshiny 4 . counter
f 'j/ fell £ pilch, flashi ng re in force m^t
7loafiny
Z' Cant strip strips over flashiny
-W eathertight construction of parapet walls is of utmost importance.
Use only best materials and workmanship.
walls must presumably function as fire barriers and they also
should form an impervious top of the walls beneath. In other
98
BRICK STRUCTURES
words, they should be stable and watertight, especially at the
top (be properly coped).
Height of Parapet Walls— To be stable, such walls should be
no higher than four times their thickness, unless given additional
lateral support. Parapet walls rarely need be more than 4 ft.
high; lower walls will often suffice.
STONC ORCONCREJE or zc.
COP/A/6
COPim7DPK>JCO\: v;
X/VNOPfCTAL AT
LCAsr OA/r /Aten
CMCACtiS/OZ
nAym to extend
THRU HALL AND
TURN DOWN ONE
MLr/NOfONTWS
XDE AND THREE
fNCHCS ON THE
OTHER 3/DE Off*
7Hrmj.nASH/N<9
MONZC DONE IS
/fT/H7£W/)U - 1
COPPER CAP rLASH/m'd£OD£D /NCEM/NTANDW LAP HALL
POUR INCHES OH ONE HOC A/JD /DURAND ONE NAIF /NCHES
ON THE OTHER ■
RIVETS SBO/R/NC STRAPS
70 CAPAZASIf/Mf-
COPPER STRAPS ABOUT |
7YAS PEEZ ON CENTRE -
EAR6ED COPPER NA/L S
DR/TEN /At JO/AfTS-
Wi.
if
x wm
m
Z//ZA
2 ZZZZJE? 7 ^
’ 7 J/VAU 7 //S-
m,
m.
W/,
■m
Y/A
m
'M
WA
W//
l A
i-Q; ;-.o >
' COPPER STRAPS TWO
PEET ON CENTRES
R//ETED 70 CAP HASH
/A/E AND SOI Of RED
70 COPPER SHEATH-
/Mf
/PLAT SEAEf COPPER
' SHEAT///N6
COH/VROOP-
-COPPER NAILS
Fig. 55. — Detail of flashings for parapet walls.
CONSTRUCTION OTHER THAN EXTERIOR WALLS 99
Copings. — Precautions for making outer walls of brick resist
water penetration apply equally to parapet walls, but special
care should be used to make the coping tight. Burned-clay
materials only, such as brick or coping tiles, or natural stone,
are best, for they do not suffer from swelling and shrinking due
to alternate wetting and drying.
Flashings. — Tightness at the top is best assured by a proper
through flashing, such as tarred building paper, mastic, or sheet
copper under the coping.
Roof flashing and counter flashing should be carried up and
into the parapet wall at least three or four courses of brick above
the roof line. This distance depends on the climate, or more
properly, on the depth of snow which may accumulate on the
roofs.
Importance of Sound, Weathertight Construction. — Under no
considerations should the mason use tailings of brick or mortar
left over from construction of lower walls as the materials for
parapet wall. Sound brick with a minimum of bats even in the
backing, fresh mortar (not reworked), and filled joints should be
required. Bear in mind that both faces of parapet walls are
exposed to weather, requiring filled joints on both sides, unless
flashed to the coping.
CONSTRUCTION OF OPENINGS IN BRICK WALLS
Workmanship
It is the duty of the brick mason to see that all brickwork
supports over wall openings are properly placed and on a proper
bearing. Lintels, beams, and similar parts should have end
bearings laid in a full bed of mortar and on solid brickwork (not
hollow). If flashings or other waterproofing are called for, the
brick mason should see that they are installed as specified.
The mason should exercise special care in setting window and
door frames. See that they are set in a full bed of mortar all
around, particularly at window sills. Frames should be pro-
vided with wind stops, or rabbets, w hich aid materially in stop-
ping water travel around them and should be thoroughly calked.
Window sills should be set with a proper downward slope and
preferably have a drip ledge cut in the projecting lower edge.
If made of brick, they should have all joints well filled. Some
even add a membrane of impervious flashing under them.
100
BRICK STRUCTURES
The building of arches requires careful workmanship. The
skewbacks should be cut properly and solidly built first. Every
brick used in the arch should be fully bedded in mortar on all
sides by shoving all brick into place and not by buttering the
ends or sides and attempting to fill joints by slushing. The key
(of brick or other material) should be small enough to allow a full
mortar bed all around. In cutting the brickwork over an arch
(to fit the extrados), have all pieces so cut as to permit of a solid
mortar joint of uniform thickness with the arch bricks.
In short, the arch should have solid supports and solid masonry
(with no voids) in the arch itself and in the brickwork imme-
diately above.
Methods of Construction
Window and Door Sills. — Brick, terra cotta, or stone window
sills should be used in a brick building. Cement sills poured in
place or wood sills are not well adapted for this purpose, nor are
they sightly or permanent. Stone window or door sills should
be of such thickness that they line with the courses of brick, with
a lug at each end.
Brick sills are the least expensive. The brick are laid on edge
and sloped forward, with the bottom edge projecting about an
inch to form a drip. The standard slope is 2 in. to the foot.
To line the edge of the sill accurately, a plank should be fas-
tened to the wall and the brick placed upon it, as shown in Fig.
56, which shows also the way each brick is buttered with mortar
before being pressed into place. 1 :3 or, preferably, 1:2 cement
mortar should be used. While the illustration shows a brick sill
being placed under a steel frame after the latter is set, it is better
construction to set the sill first. This should always be done
with a wood frame.
To obtain the best effect, brick sills should be “slip sills, ” not
wider than the actual masonry opening. Brick sills laid hori-
zontally with a pitch formed with mortar are not satisfactory, as
the action of the weather may cause the mortar to loosen.
In general, brick is the most satisfactory material for either
window or door sills, although it may be used to form charm-
ing combinations with other materials. Where brick is used
throughout, however, no material has to be specially ordered.
Brick is beautiful and flexible. An appearance of great
CONSTRUCTION OTHER THAN EXTERIOR WALLS 101
solidity may be gained by sloping the brick window sills very
sharply, thus apparently increasing the depth of the reveal of
the windows.
Brick for doorsills should be hard burned. The standard
slope for brick doorsills is % in. to the foot.
Window and Door Frames. — The only difference between
double-hung windows for frame and for brick walls is that the
latter are boxed in at the jambs to provide a housing for the
weights and that they have a staff bead outside. It is cheaper.
Fig. 56.— Laying brick sills, showing use of board and line and full-bedded
mortar joint.
however, to buy stock frames for brick walls with the box in
place than to have the carpenter on the job make the box.
Frames should always be constructed so that there is no
straight joint at the back of the frame from front to back of the
wall. A wind stop should be nailed on all such frames so that
shrinkage of the frame will not allow drafts to blow through into
the house.
Window and door frames for brick w^alls are made by all mill-
work companies. Contractors should use standard sizes wher-
ever possible. Frames of any size can, of course, be used with
brick walls, the small brick units and numerous courses allowing
easy adjustment to any dimension.
Setting Window and Door Frames. — Window and door frames
are set by the carpenter, window frames being placed on top of
the sill of a thin bed of mortar. A much better job is made if they
102
BRICK STRUCTURES
are set before the wall has risen above the sill level. They are
leveled, plumbed, and braced so that the braces will not interfere
with the placing of the scaffold.
First-floor frames are sometimes braced to stakes driven in
the ground outside the house. The most convenient way, how-
ever, is to place an upright at about the center of a small house,
braced in two directions near the bottom with short pieces of
plank. All the window frames on the story are then braced to the
upright with braces placed horizontally, near the top of the frame,
sloping braces being entirely avoided. This provides clear work-
ing space under the braces, and scaffolding can be moved around
at will (Fig. 57).
The carpenter should pile a few r brick on the sill to assist in
holding the frame steady. If he fails to do this, the bricklayer
should place them himself before starting to brick the window in.
If a door frame or casement w indow frame is high, a crosspiece
should be nailed on the frame to prevent the window 7 being
.
CONSTRUCTION OTHER THAN EXTERIOR WALLS 103
bowed in. The box stiffens a double-hung frame considerably.
Especial care should be exercised in bricking around steel win-
dows and doors, as the jambs must not be bowed in by the pres-
sure of the masonry.
The openings for interior frames are generally formed in brick
and the frames set afterwards.
Labor in Setting Window and Door Frames. — No more time
is required to set window or door frames in a brick than in a frame
house. The carpenter does the setting and bracing, the brick-
layer simply bricks them in.
Supports over Openings.— Supporting the brickwork over wall
openings may be done by arches of various types or by lintels.
Over window and door frames, the brickwork the depth of the
reveal is carried on the face arch or lintel, the backing carried on
another lintel set higher than the face support, with or without
a relieving arch above it. Where openings are arched, however,
a less expensive and more general method is to run the arch the
full thickness of the 8-in. wall, and this method is shown on
the plates. It has the disadvantage, however, of not providing
such a good windbreak as the method first described. In a
small house, flat or practically flat lintels or arches over openings
are to be preferred for the sake of appearance. The effect of a
segmental arch is to increase the apparent size of the opening,
and this may tend to throw it out of scale with the building.
A stone lintel should not be relied upon to sustain the load of
the wall above. It is safer to support the stone with steel.
Stone has uncertain transverse strength and may crack unless
made too high for good proportion. A small mold of appropriate
section over the top and at the sides of a stone lintel will produce
a better effect than a flat lintel set flush with the brick wall,
particularly where the lintel is three or more brick courses high.
Rough Support of Backing. — Over a door or window opening
the brick backing may be carried on a wood lintel. This is all
the support required for backing over openings 3 ft. wide and less,
for, when the mortar is set, brickwork will support itself over
spans of this width, even though the wood lintel should burn
or decay. For openings wider than 3 ft., a brick relieving arch
should be thrown over the lintel, bearing on the wall at the ends
of the lintel and not on the lintel itself. The space between the
lintel and relieving arch should be filled with brickwork. This
104
BRICK STRUCTURES
is built upon the lintel and shaped at the top to form a center for
the relieving arch.
SEGMENTAL ARCH BONDED ELEVATION OF WINDOW WITH BRICK.
OR 'LACED" SILL AND SOLDIER. COURSE
OVER STEEL LINTEL
WOOD LINTEL AND RELEIVING
ARCH SUPPORTING BACKING
WOOD LINTEL SUPPORTING
BACKING
ta
INEXPENSIVE TYPE OF FIAT OR JACK*
ARCH. BRICKS NOT ROBBED TO WEDGE 5HAPE
HORIZONTAL JOINTS AT RIGHT ANCLES
TO RADIUS OF BRICK. BRICK ROBBED
OR ROUGH AXED AT TOP AND
S>OFf IT ONLY
Fig.
BRICK RUBBED TO WEDGE SHAPE AND
RUBBED TO FORM HORIZONTAL JOINTS.
TOP AND BOTTOM OF EACH BRICK.
THIS IS TERMED A”GAUGED ARCH
58.
Steel Lintels. — Where a flat soffit is desired, a simple steel
lintel may be used to support the outside thickness of brickwork
over an opening with a 4-in. reveal. A 4- by 3-in. or even 3- by
3-in. steel angle is generally sufficient for openings up to 4 ft.
wide; wider openings up to 5 ft. require a 3- by 5-in. angle. If
CONSTRUCTION OTHER THAN EXTERIOR WALLS 105
the reveal is 8 in., two angles back to back should be used, prefer-
ably riveted together.
If both sides of the wall are exposed, the whole thickness should
be carried upon the steel.
If the floor joists above are close to the top of the opening
below, the lintels must be strong enough to carry them
Painting Steel Angles. — Before setting the angles, the surface
and ends which will be buried and concealed in the masonry
Fig. 59. — Semicircular arches used as a decorative feature to relieve an otherwise
blank wall surface.
should first be thoroughly painted with graphite or red lead and
oil.
Soldier Course over Angles. — A soldier course of brick on end
is frequently placed over a steel lintel. Very often the mistake is
made of making this course wider than the opening. A much
better effect will be gained by making it no longer than the width
of the opening, similar to the brick on edge “slip sill” already
mentioned.
Bearing of Lintels. — Wood or steel lintels should generally be
made 8 in. longer than the openings, giving a 4-in. bearing at
each end.
Types of Brick Arches. — Flat, segmental, semicircular, and
elliptical arches are commonly used. In the latter type a more
pleasing outline may be obtained by laying out the curve free-
hand than by using a true ellipse constructed mechanically.
The Flat Arch. — Although, in theory, a flat or “jack” arch is a
106
BRICK STRUCTURES
true arch, capable of bearing a load, in practice it is weak and
should be supported on steel if the opening is over 2 ft. wide.
The steel should of course be bent to the camber, if any, of the
soffit.
If the very best effect is desired, jack arches should be con-
structed so that the radial joints are the same width for the whole
length of the joint. To make a perfect job either special brick
must be made or the bricks rubbed to a wedge shape. Either
of these methods is, of course, expensive.
The brick should also be shaped so that the joints at the ends
of the brick within the arch are horizontal, instead of at right
angles to the radius of the arch.
Inasmuch as a perfectly horizontal soffit, especially a wide one,
appears to the eye to sag in the middle, a slight camber may be
formed in the soffit to correct this.
Segmental and Semicircular Arches. — The strongest type of
arch is the segmental, where the abutment is ample to resist the
thrust. With small abutments the semicircular arch is safer.
For openings over windows and doors in residences the seg-
mental arch is the type almost always used. The rise of a seg-
mental arch will, of course, depend on the architectural design.
A good rule to follow, however, is to make the rise equal to one-
eighth the width of the opening.
For relieving arches and for arches in basements the rise from
springing line to soffit may be made 1 in. for every foot of opening.
In the very best work, the bricks in segmental arches where
rowlocks are 9 in. wide are rubbed to wedge shape, but for ordi-
nary residence work the curve is taken up in the joints, by mak-
ing them wider at the top than at the bottom. Bricks are
sometimes chipped to wedge shape by the bricklayer.
The strongest arches are bonded by headers, as in the case of a
brick wall.
Centering. — Centering for arches is furnished, set, and struck
by the carpenter.
Over windows and doors having a 4-in. reveal, the face arch
may be constructed without centering, the window frames with
the staff bead in place furnishing sufficient support.
Cost of Supports over Openings. — For ordinary residence work
with 4-in. reveals to windows and doors the segmental arch is the
lowest in cost. A flat steel lintel, with or without a soldier course
CONSTRUCTION OTHER THAN EXTERIOR WALLS 107
on top, costs a little more than a segmental arch but may present
a better appearance, depending on the design.
Segmental face and relieving arches set in 4-in. rowlocks, and
soldier courses over steel lintels, take practically no more time
to set than the brick in the rest of the wall, and nothing extra
should be figured for them.
Where brick are roughly chipped to wedge shape the cost of the
chipping only should be added. A bricklayer can chip about
40 brick per hr.
Brickwork Carried by Arch or Lintel. — It should not be
assumed that a strip of brickwork to the top of the wall, the same
width as the opening, is carried by the support. Brickwork tends
to arch itself over. A section of brickwork forming an equilateral
triangle, each side having the same length as the width of the
opening, should be assumed to be carried by the support. The
weight of any floor construction within or near the top of this
area should, of course, be added.
BRICK AS FOUNDATION FOR STUCCO
Stucco. — Stucco is plaster in various surface textures applied
to exterior walls. In its natural state, how r ever, cement finish
is dreary and lifeless compared to the rich sparkling effects pro-
duced by exposing the brick.
A house finished in stucco placed upon a base of any construc-
tion cannot compete in price with the Ideal wall, with its beauti-
ful everlasting brick surface; and in many localities the solid wall
furred compares very favorably in price with the stucco house.
It should be noted, how'ever, that the price of the latter varies
considerably according to the nature of the construction behind
the stucco; and the fire-resistiveness and permanence of the
underlying construction should always be carefully considered.
Since the Economy wall and after that the Rolok-Bak types
of w r alls, is the lowest in cast of any wall that can be constructed,
it is suggested that, if stucco finish appears desirable, bids be
obtained upon this finish placed upon the types of walls men-
tioned, built with low-cost brick.
If a stucco finish is specially desired, a brick surface with joints
left rough is far superior to any other building material yet
devised as a base upon which to place it. The surface of the
brick itself is of a nature that enables the stucco to bond into it,
108
BRICK STRUCTURES
New cover
mould underZiZZ
soffit
Steel angle over*'
window openings
New cover mould '
Anchor y
New cover mou/dZ
New brick si//-'' 4
New bricks it
Bui /ding paper
over wood sidmg ~ —
( Typical)
Steel angle tag bolted through
siding to studs, shown by
dotted tines and shadin g
Anchors
O/d water table
cutaway
Steel angle over
basement window"
New cover mould '•
New brick si/h^
DETAIL FOR SUPPORTING NEW
BRICK FACING OVER PORCH OR GABLE
Grade
New brick facing to
resign existing
footing or on new
footing below
frost line
Building paper
recommended
^ Brick tie
DETAIL FOR ANCHORING NEW
BRICK FACING TO OLD SI DING
Fig. 60 . — Application of brick veneer to existing frame construction, with
details of method of anchoring brick to old siding and of supporting brick over
gables and wide openings. Similar construction may be employed in new
buildings over sheathing and building paper attached to studs.
CONSTRUCTION OTHER THAN EXTERIOR WALLS 109
if well wet when the latter is applied; if the joints are left rough
a mechanical key is also provided. Brickwork, of course,
has little or no shrinkage.
Stucco with Brick Trim. — Certain architectural styles employ
stucco with exposed brick trim for lintels, sills, quoins, belt
courses, cornices, and similar details. Under such circumstances,
the only sound construction is to apply the stucco on a masonry
load-bearing wall and, for this purpose, brick is the ideal material.
The brick details to be left exposed are corbelled or projected
beyond the plane of the areas to be coated with stucco, and then
the latter is applied in the usual manner.
BRICK VENEER ON FRAME CONSTRUCTION
Characteristics of Brick Veneer on Frame— The use of brick
veneer as a facing material only, without utilizing its load-bearing
properties, has found applications, principally to dwellings, in
many parts of the country. Such veneering is usually applied
over wood framing and sheathing in both old and new houses.
It lacks many of the desired qualities of solid brick wall construc-
tion, or even of hollow walls of brick, but may be advantageously
employed to rehabilitate an older wood wall or stucco surface.
In appearance, a brick veneer wall may have almost any distinc-
tive character and colorful beauty.
For new construction, brick veneer costs about the same as
solid or hollow 8-in. brick walls.
A brick veneered job, however, possesses certain desirable
qualities when well done, and certain precautions should, there-
fore, be observed in its construction.
Structural stability is obtained by (1) sufficiently strong and
well-braced frame backing, (2) ample anchorage of the veneer to
the backing, and (3) good construction of the brickwork.
The brick veneer should, obviously, not extend below grade
and should rest on a substantial support, either on the foundation
wall or on well-anchored steel shelf angles.
Veneered construction resists exterior fire exposures better
than frame but has about the same internal resistance. How-
ever, when the space between the veneer and sheathing is poorly
fire stopped or the sheathing is not of incombustible material,
fires of internal origin may be difficult to extinguish.
110
BRICK STRUCTURES
Anchorage between veneer and sheathing should be frequent
and anchors should be ol noncorrodible metal and strong. Wall
openings should be carefully flashed to prevent the entrance of
water behind the facing, and the use of waterproof paper between
veneer and sheathing is strongly recommended.
Adequate fire stops should be installed at floor lines and at
intersections of partitions with external walls. With the above
precautions, veneered structures may be dry, fairly durable,
and easy to build.
New Construction.— In new work the foundation is extended
outward beyond the sheathing line approximately 5 in. to allow a
slight air space between the brick and the sheathing. The brick
is carried up from the foundation as a single 4-in. withe in running
bond or in any pattern that may be formed by the use of half
brick as headers. The brick should be bonded to the framework
by the use of noncorrodible metal ties, spaced not over 1G in.
apart vertically and 24 in. horizontally.
Modernizing Existing Buildings with Brick Veneer. — All the
advantages enumerated above apply with equal force to brick
veneering over existing wall surfaces of wood or stucco.
1 y pi cal construction methods are indicated in the accompanv-
ing figure. I articular attention is called to methods of extending
existing window sills and finishing off the existing wood trim
against the new veneer.
h oundations may be extended to carry the veneered construc-
tion by trenching against the old foundation to below frost line
and carrying a new foundation of brick up to grade line upon
which the veneer above is supported. An alternate method is to
bolt a heavy angle iron to the wood sills to carry the veneer, but
this is not recommended, as rotting of the sills will endanger the
veneer. When the original foundation has a stepped footing,
it is advisable to carry the facing down to a solid bed as indicated.
Angle irons may be used to carry veneer over existing wood
porches and above wide openings, as shown in the accompanying
illustration. They should be firmly lag-bolted into the studs
and should follow the slope of the roof. Angle irons used as
lintels over openings should be lag-bolted and also carried about
4 in. into the brickwork on both sides.
Metal ties should be used in the manner described in the pre-
ceding paragraph headed New Construction.
CONSTRUCTION OTHER THAN EXTERIOR WALLS 111
note that
O THICK BCLOW
UUETK.E LEVEL
BRICK Oft.
FIRE ORKK LINING 1
AND HE AR>
TeiHMfR MiCH
CENrOUL FT IN
PLACE
ISOMETRIC -SECTION
SHOWING
CONSTRUCTION- Or- FIRE PLACE
TERRA-
COTTA
JfTOE
[llNINQ
c I cleanout
S' DOOR
CASEMENT FIPC
ACEA OF FLUE 5H0ULD-
CE /VO AREA OF •
fire place opening*
SECTION THRU-
FIREPLACE*
PLAN OF FIREPLACE AND HEARTH-
■ DETAILS OF TYPICAL BLICK-
■ PIREPLACE AND HEARTH*
V.
J
112
BRICK STRUCTURES
Reinforced Brick Facing. — A method employed in residential
steel frame construction that is also applicable to veneering over
wood frame is to apply to the sheathing a fibrous-backed welded
wire mesh of heavy gauge and to build up the brick facing
approximately ^ to 1 in. away from this fabric. Mortar is
slushed down behind the brick so that it becomes thoroughly
embedded in the reinforcing fabric, which thus serves to bond
the entire wall surface into a strong vertical slab. Metal ties
are recommended, attached to the reinforcing fabric at suitable
intervals.
DESIGN AND CONSTRUCTION OF CHIMNEYS AND
FIREPLACES
Design
Brick Is Best for Chimneys and Fireplaces. — Solid brickwork
is the safest and most satisfactoy material to use for chimneys
and flues. If a chimney fire occurs considerable heat may be
developed in the chimney, and the safety of the house will then
depend upon the integrity of the flue wall. It is dangerous to
use hollow units for this purpose, for these cannot stand high
temperatures without danger of cracking and spalling. Salmon
brick may be used for interior chimneys below the roof line, but
this is not recommended.
The Brick Fireplace. — The comfort and pleasure of a home
may be vastly increased by a fireplace in the living room, and the
most appropriate and the safest material of which to build both
the fireplace and mantel is brick.
The fireplace is very properly a part of the furnishing of a room
— a built-in feature. It should conform to the dominant archi-
tectural style and period.
The natural surfaces of brick, the slight irregularities, and the
wide variety of shadings makes this material particularly “ flexi-
ble” and adaptable in the hands of the architect. And these
same native textures and tones make brick most appropriate
for interior decoration.
Successful Design Easily Attained. — The art of building a
fireplace so that it will perform properly and satisfactorily is
often more or less a mystery to the homeowner and even to many
brick masons. Building a fireplace which does not deliver smoke
CONSTRUCTION OTHER THAN EXTERIOR WALLS 113
into the room as well as up the chimney and which gives out a
fair measure of heat in return for the fuel fed has been considered
as much a matter of good luck as of good management.
This older prevailing impression is far from being a correct
one, for there is nothing mysterious about the design or construc-
tion of a thoroughly satisfactory fireplace. On the contrary,
the principles upon which good fireplace design are based are
few, simple, and easily understood and, if applied in the construc-
tion of any fireplace, will ensure satisfactory results.
These few essentials of correct design have only to do with
proper combustion and heat radiation, so that fireplaces need not
be alike in exterior design or ornamentation. They may,
indeed, be of almost any design and still function properly if
combustion chambers and flues are of correct proportions.
Essential Requirements— The essential objects to be attained
are
1. Proper combustion of the fuel.
2. Delivery of all smoke and other products of combustion up
the chimney.
3. Radiation of the maximum amount of heat to the room.
4. Simplicity and firesafeness in construction.
The first two essentials are closely related and depend mainlv
upon
1. Shape and relative dimensions of the combustion chamber.
2. Ratio of flue area to the fireplace opening.
3. Proper location of the fireplace throat and smoke shelf.
The amount of heat radiated also depends upon the shape and
relative dimensions of the combustion chamber.
Size of Fireplace. The first consideration is the choice of a
size proportionate to the size of the room.
One may have been charmed by an immense fireplace in some
quaint colonial home and be led into the error of building a fire-
place entirely out of scale with one’s own room. A fire that
would fill such a fireplace would be entirely too hot for a moder-
ate-sized room. Moreover, it would require a larger chimney
and would induce an abnormal infiltration of air through doors,
windows, crevices, etc., to supply the needs for combustion and
thus waste fuel. With this in mind, select a size suitable to the
room. A living room with 300 sq. ft. of floor space is well served
by a fireplace opening 30 to 36 in. wide. Fireplaces of 42-, 48-,
114
BRICK STRUCTURES
54-, and 60-in. widths should only be used in rooms of correspond-
ingly greater size.
Location of Fireplace. — The location of the fireplace in the
room is also an important consideration. Since it is perhaps the
most ornamental feature inside the house, it should be given a
prominent position. But it should not, if avoidable, be in the
line of travel through the room, nor near the entrance door, nor
where a cross draft sweeps it. If placed in the longer side of the
room, it should not be built out so far as to cut down the useful
width of the room or cause a floor rug or other covering to over-
lay the hearth. If built into an outer wall, the same caution
holds. Keep in mind also that when large windows flank the
fireplace, people face too much light when the fireplace is used
during the day. It is better to use small windows placed high
in the side wall. An outside end wall is a favorite and w T ell-
chosen location. The full floor space of the room may be
preserved by building the back of the fireplace and chimney pro-
jecting out irom the side wall. This often improves the exterior
appearance of the entire side of the house.
Proportions of Fireplace Openings. — Fireplace openings should
not be too high. Regardless of the width, the height of the open-
ing is usually made from 30 to 34 in. above the hearth, principally
because of flame height and also with a view to proper mantel
height. The table below gives a combination of openings,
depths, and corresponding flue-lining sizes that are knowm to
work well. The depth is often determined by wall depth or by
the permissible projection into the room. A shallow opening
throws out more heat. There is no particular advantage in a
deep fireplace and there are often disadvantages.
Flue Areas Relative to Fireplace Opening. — Relatively high
velocities through the throat and flue are desirable, for they
induce the adjacent air and smoke into the stream and so prevent
smoke from coming into the room.
Both the height of the chimney and the area of the flue affect
the velocity. For the average two-story dwelling, the flue area
should be about one-tenth the area of the fireplace opening;
some authorities uses one-twelfth. For a chimney 30 ft. or more
high, one-twelfth should be ample, but for chimneys of bungalows
or where the chimney height is 20 ft. or less, one-tenth the area
is safer. But the full area of circular flues only is effective. The
CONSTRUCTION OTHER THAN EXTERIOR WALLS 115
corners of square and oblong flues are practically dead spaces,
fheiefoie the effective areas are less than the geometric area, and
effective areas should always be used in calculations. The effec-
tive areas of various-shaped flue linings of commercial sizes are
given in the following table. Since the effective flue area may
seldom equal exactly one-tenth or one-twelfth the fireplace open-
ing, use the lining which in effective area is next above the cal-
culated area. However, a few square inches less in area will
make no essential difference.
Table 3. — Fireplace Dimensions
Width of
opening,
in.
Approxi-
mate
height, in.
Depth of
opening,
in.
Rectangu-
lar outside
dimen-
sions, in.
Effective
area,
sq. in.
Nominal
flue sizes,
circular,
diameter,
in.
Effective
area,
sq. in.
24
28
17-20
8 H by 8J2
41
10
78
28
28
17-20
SV 2 by 13
70
10
78
30
30
17-21
8 H by 13
70
12
113
34
30
17-21
SH by 13
70
12
113
36
30
21
8 V 2 by 18
97
12
113
40
30
21-24
8y by 18
97
15
177
42
30
21-25
814 by 18
97
15
177
48
32
21-26
13 by 13
100
15
177
Proper Shape of Combustion Chamber. — The shape of the
combustion chamber influences both the draft and the heat
radiated to the room. For good draft the upper part on all sides
should slope in gently to the size of the throat. This slope
should preferably be not greater than about 30 deg. from the
vertical, a ratio of approximately 3 in. horizontal to 5 in. vertical.
The slope usually starts from a point a little less than halfway
from the hearth to the throat. This slope of the sides and the
back to the long, narrow throat throws the flame forward and
leads the gases with increasing velocity through the throat.
For maximum heat radiation, the sides are not only sloped in
toward the center, but they are also splayed toward the back.
The amount of splay that gives maximum radiation has been, by
years of experience, fixed at approximately 5 in. for each 1 2 in
of depth.
Importance and Location of Smoke Shelf.— A good draft
116
BRICK STRUCTURES
depends not only upon the proper relation of fireplace opening
to the flue size, but upon the location of the throat, which in turn
determines the position of the smoke shelf. The slope of the
back and sides terminates in the throat, which is usually formed
of a combination metal throat and damper. l{ is best to place a
damper in the throat in any case. The throat should be not less
than 4 in. above the top of the fireplace opening; 8 in. is much
better. The illustrations show this construction better than a
verbal description.
The space above the throat and smoke shelf is the smoke
chamber, and this is again gently sloped inward to the size of the
flue lining, from which place the flue lining starts.
The smoke shelf has an important duty. The usual cause of
smoke being discharged into the room is downdrafts in the
chimney. The smoke shelf, located above the upper fireplace
opening, deflects the downdraft upward into the rising column
of gases and so prevents its escape into the room.
Metal Throats and Dampers.— As previously stated, a com-
bined throat and damper of metal is used in most cases. It
forms a smooth throat passage and simplifies the mason’s work.
Some metal throats are built with a broad flange at the base
which becomes the supporting lintel for the brickwork above.
In other cases, a steel angle forms the support, except where a
brick arch is used. A damper for controlling the draft is essential
and it further serves to close off the flue when the fireplace is not
in use.
Design of Chimney. — The construction of the brickwork com-
prising the fireplace and chimney is usually one continuous opera-
tion. The same chimney often contains other than the fireplace
flue and is an integral piece of brick masonry from the foundation
footing to the chimney top.
Not more than two flues should be in the same chimney space.
Where there are more than two flues, each third flue should be
separated from the others by a withe, or 4-in. brick partition.
Chimneys constructed entirely within the house are more
efficient than chimneys on the outside wall, the former allowing
the flues to become hotter, giving a better draft.
The chimney should be carried up to a point at least 1 ft.
above the highest point of the roof; 2 ft. is a better minimum
clearance. Wind curling over the roof top will not then cause a
CONSTRUCTION OTHER THAN EXTERIOR WALLS 117
downdraft in the chimney. The preferred finish is a slab of
natural stone or of masonry, supported high enough above the
chimney top to make each side opening equal to or greater
than the total flue areas. Ornamental chimney pots are also
much used. Iheir slightly contracted area helps to prevent
downdrafts.
.Proper construction
Direction
of wind
~~^~Af%ast 2-0“
J ! L
^"Insufficient height
Effect of tort
chimney
Fig. 62.— Top of chimney should he at least 2 ft. above the top of ridge in order
that wind currents may not be deflected down the chimney
Use Separate Flues. — Every fireplace and every other stove,
furnace, or what not should have a separate flue carried to the
top of the chimney, with no other connections.
The fireplace flue should start from the middle top of the
smoke chamber and not from the side. If it is necessary to offset
it, start the slope to the offset from the middle, as shown in the
illustration. The sloped portion should not be inclined more
than 30 deg. from the vertical (3 in. horizontal to 5 in. vertical) ;
otherwise, soot may accumulate and decrease the draft.
1 he adjacent ends of both flue-lining sections must be mitered
off to make the angle joint, if the full area of the flue is to be
preserved at this point.
Ashpits Under Each Flue.— An ash trap door in the back
hearth, with an ash chute and cleanout door at the bottom of
each flue of the chimney in the basement, is preferred construc-
tion and almost always used.
118
BRICK STRUCTURES
Construction
Supports for Chimneys. — A wall to support the fireplace and
adjacent flues should be built up from a footing in the basement.
This wall may be hollow to form an ashpit. Small isolated
chimneys may be supported on corbels built out from the wall,
although it is better practice in every case to carry the support
right down to a bearing below the basement floor.
According to the National Board of Fire Underwriters Chim-
ney Ordinance, mortar for chimneys should be composed of 2 bags
Portland cement and 1 bag hydrated lime mixed together thor-
oughly while dry, added to three times its volume of clean sharp
sand. One cubic foot of lump lime putty may be substituted for
the hydrated lime.
Thickness of Flue Walls. — The least expensive way to build
flue walls is to make them 4 in. thick, lined with burned-clay
flue lining. With walls of this thickness the lining never should
be omitted nor replaced with plaster. The expansion and con-
traction of the chimney would cause the plaster to crack and an
opening from the interior of the flue through which flame could
pass might eventually be formed. All joints should be com-
pletely filled with mortar.
If flue lining is not used, the walls should be not less than 8 in.
thick, with joints in the flue carefully pointed. In Europe, a
mixture of cow dung and lime plaster, used for plastering flues,
is found to crack but little. The plaster is applied as the flue
goes up. As the flue is built, a bag of shavings fitting the flue
tightly may be drawn up by a rope attached to the top of the
bag. This is used to catch the plaster droppings. It is also
useful in a flue in which clay lining is used and in which there is an
offset. It may save much trouble and cost to contractors in
cleaning out flues after completion.
Setting Flue Linings. — The flue lining should extend the entire
height of the chimney, projecting about 4 in. above the cap and
a slope formed of cement to within 2 in. of the top of the lining.
This helps to give an upward direction to the wind currents about
the top of the flue and tends to prevent rain and snow from being
blown in.
The flue space should not extend up from the foundation but
only from about a foot below the first connection. The furnace
CONSTRUCTION OTHER THAN EXTERIOR WALLS 119
flue should have a cleanout door. Be careful that there is no
connection between the flues at the bottom or trouble may be
experienced with the draft.
J
I
tfr v
I '! I J
Hi M
11 !
! |M
Hi ,L-j
u-La
Cement wash
Chimney cap
Cap flashing
■/ Roof
Steel joist
hanger
Furnace
hole
Cleanout «
door and
frame
C-Firestopping
onstripof DIFFERENT METHODS
meta/or OF ARRANGING FLUES
metal lath TO GET GOOD BON D
'Attic
floor
2nd. floor
Hole for stove
or range
IN BRICKWORK
First floor
'' — Trimmer beam *
Cellar or basement floor \
Fireplace
throatand...
damper
Brick hearth ,
-fe Asbestos
j board stop
- Firestopping
/ materiaton
\i strip of metal
or metal lath
/Flue ring
Y / with c/eanouf
Y door under
—Ledge to
support fining
Plaster on brick
Fire brick lining
'Firestopping
metal lath or
strip ofmetat
= N 'Ash dump
Brick, stone or
.< concrete base
ELEVATION SECTION
Fig. 63— Elevation and section of interior independent chimney showing
recommended construction. It is wise to build one extra flue. It may prove
invaluable to accommodate later appliances. The extra cost when chimney is
being constructed is small.
^ iH a U the joints of the fine lining and the space between the
lining and the brickwork tightly with mortar.
The partitions between flues (called “withes”) should be
bonded as shown in Fig. 63.
120
BRICK STRUCTURES
Adjacent Woodwork. — Keep all woodwork — joists, furring
strips, rafters, etc. — at least 2 in. away from all flues and brick
chimney breasts. Above all, never rest any woodwork on the
walls of flue.
Construction of Mantel. — To prevent the finished mantel from
being spotted with plaster, the rough work only is installed first,
the mantel and hearth being built after the plasterer has finished
his work.
Siding Stud,
Sheathing, j Joist
incombustible
material '
Double _
.header
1 Double trimmer B -
. , PLAN . ,Stud
Finish Brick
f loor heart!
Meta! flashing ^
Sheathing
"-'-Asbestos
board
Incombustible
material
PLAN
Incombustible
material =g=
Double trimmer
\Finistrfloor
SECTION B-B
SECTION A-A
Fig. 64. — Protection around fire- Fig. G5.— Protection around fireplace
place in outside frame wall and section extending through outside wall,
showing trimmer arch and hearth.
Number of Bricks in Fireplaces. — To figure the number of
bricks in a fireplace, multiply the width of the fireplace by the
height from floor to floor and figure it as a solid wall. Then
deduct an area equal to the brick displaced by the flues and fire-
place from the total area given above. Find material quanti-
ties in Table 5 on page 161.
Hearth. — The front and back hearth are generally laid of the
same brick as the mantel, either flat or on edge. Sometimes the
back hearth is of firebrick. The portion projecting into the room
rests upon a “ trimmer arch,” as shown in Fig. 64, thrown from
the fireplace to the header joist, the filling between the trimmer
and the hearth being either lean concrete or mortar.
Sides and Back. — These also may be formed of the same brick
CONSTRUCTION OTHER THAN EXTERIOR WALLS 121
as used for the mantel. Firebrick is sometimes used. The back
should be perpendicular for two or three courses, sloping or curv-
ing outward from this point.
Smoke Shelf. — Place the throat well forward to form a smoke
shelf at the damper level, for the reasons given above.
Fig. 66. — Method of building two
fireplaces back to back in a brick party
wall to secure proper spacing between
ends of floor joists.
Fig. 67. — Floor framing around a
single fireplace.
lath lath
Fig. 68. — Stud partition across back of fireplace and around the ends of chimney
breast, showing proper arrangement of studs.
The opening above the smoke shelf should be “ gathered”
or contracted to the size of the flu by corbeling, this being done
within the least height practicable. Up to the level of the clay
flue lining, the brickwork should not be less than 8 in. thick, for
the space immediately above the damper is the hottest part of
the chimney. j
4-in trimmer beam
122
BRICK STRUCTURES
WHERE TO USE FLASHINGS AND CALKING
\\ eathertight construction of any type — whether masonry,
wood, or steel — requires the use of flashings and calking at certain
important points in the structure. The purpose of flashings is
to prevent the entrance of water at vulnerable points in the
exterior surfaces. Calking is employed to prevent the entrance
of both wind and water around window and door frames, and at
other places where there may be shrinkage or expansion of the
joints between masonry and other materials that cannot be pro-
tected by flashings.
Construction of Flashings— Typical methods for constructing
and installing flashings are indicated in the accompanying dia-
grams. Flashings may be made of any durable and watertight
CONSTRUCTION OTHER THAN EXTERIOR WALLS 123
material. Heavy waterproof building felt may be employed for
concealed flashings or for some exposed flashings for maximum
economy, but copper, zinc, lead, and sometimes aluminum flash-
ings are to be preferred because of their greater durability.
Galvanized iron, unless of copper-bearing or rust-resisting type,
has about the durability of waterproof felts and should seldom
be employed.
CiPrLASH/HG
Through flashings in brickwork are those which are carried
entirely through the masonry wall or, in the case of Ideal hollow
wall construction, those which are carried through the outer
withe. They are used to interrupt the passage of water within
the mortar joints and to force it to the outer surface of the wall.
They are usually employed where there is a change of material,
as over lintels, under sills, and at spandrels. ^
Counter flashings should always be employed where two sur-
faces meet in different planes, as where a roof joins a parapet wall
or where a low roof meets a higher exterior wall. They consist
of two flashings, one applied to the lower horizontal or sloping
surface and turned up against the vertical surface and the other a
counter flashing built into the brickwork of the vertical surface
and turned down over the top of the lower flashing, as illustrated
in Fig. 71.
124
BRICK STRUCTURES
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Fig. 71. — Flashings should be used where applied wood detail joins brickwork.
Typical methods recommended over doorway.
Where to Use Through Flashings. — Through flashings should
be employed at the following points:
1 . Under the coping of parapet walls (see Figs. 54 and 55, pages
97 and 98).
2. Over spandrel beams (see Fig. 73).
3. Over lintels.
4. Under sills of windows and doors.
5. At the upper surface of half-timber work, through timbering,
or wherever masonry joins a nonmasonry material. Also over
CONSTRUCTION OTHER THAN EXTERIOR WALLS 125
applied woodwork, such as pilasters and other wood trim as
shown in Fig. 71.
6. Above the grade line at the top of brick or other masonry
inundations. Ihis is for the purpose of preventing the capillary
seepage oi water upward from the ground into the structural wall
to minimize the possibility of efflorescence. It may consist of a
dui able metal or a flat bed of slate or other impervious stone.
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F'O- 7 2 -Flashing at the junction of a tile-covered sloping roof running
down the side of a brick wall. Similar base and counter flashings are used
where roof slopes away from wall.
Where to Use Counter Flashings.— Counter flashings should
be employed at the following typical points in any masonry
structure :
1. Where brick chimneys penetrate the roof surface (see Fics
69 and 70).
2. At the junction of parapet walls and flat or sloping roofs.
The flashing should be carried up the side of the wall to a height
greater than that at which snow or ice may be expected to collect
(Figs. 54 and 55).
3. Wherever low roofs adjoin higher side walls (Fig. 72).
4. Wherever two independent but adjacent structures meet at
different levels, as in city construction where two adjoining
buildings of different height are built against the same property
line, in \\ hich case flashings and counter flashings should be used
to prevent water or ice penetrating the joint separating the two
independent walls.
The Importance of Calking. — Window and door frames,
126
BRICK STRUCTURES
whether of metal or wood, should always be calked at their junc-
tion with masonry materials. For this purpose leave a space
not less than J4 nor more than % in. wide between the brick
masonry and the face of the window or door frame. This per-
mits the insertion of the nozzle of a pressure calking tool with
Fig. 73. — Flashing of spandrel in fireproof steel construction, showing 8 in. of
brick over exterior of steel columns.
which suitable calking compounds can be forced into the space to
make a weathertight joint. This construction allows for shrink-
age of woodwork and for temperature changes in metal frames.
Where to Use Calking. — Always make provision for calking
around window or door frames of any type and at all other points
where masonry joins a nonmasonry material, unless the joint is
covered by through flashings or counter flashings.
BEARING AND NON-BEARING SOUNDPROOF PARTITIONS
Brick masonry makes a superior soundproof partition wall of
either bearing or non-bearing type. Load-bearing partitions are
CONSTRUCTION OTHER THAN EXTERIOR WALLS 127
built like exterior load-bearing walls. They may be solid or
hollow, as governed by the load and space limitations.
Non-bearing Partitions of Brick.— Two types of non-bearing
partitions may be built of brick in addition to fire walls and party
walls (which may be non-bearing.) They are the 4-in. solid
brick partition and the 2)4-in. solid brick rolock partition. Both
are exceptionally soundproof and the choice should be governed
primarily by the permissible thickness and unsupported length
or height. The 4-in. partition is built with the bricks laid flat in
common bond and requires no description.
Soundproof Rolock Partition Wall. — This partition is built of
common clay brick laid on edge (rolock) to form a core 2J4 in.
thick. This is then plastered on both sides with in. of old-
fashioned lime plaster, making a total wall thickness of approxi-
mately 334 in.
Tests on this wall prove that it is remarkably soundproof, its
resistance to sound being such as to nullify almost completely the
sounds of singing, loud talking or laughter, phonograph records,
ladio receiving sets, and all other normal objectionable noises.
Its w eight is only about 20 lb. per sq. ft. and it can be constructed
at very low cost.
Applications of Soundproof Rolock Partition.— This wall is par-
ticularly desirable for use in apartment buildings, ofl&ce buildings,
hotels, schools, and commercial structures of all sorts where it
may be keyed to masonry floors and ceilings of normal height and
to vertical structural columns at normal spacings. Its economy,
light weight, soundproofness, and ease of construction strongly
favor its use. It has adequate rigidity and thrust resistance
after it is keyed or bonded in at the top, and even during con-
struction it is as rigid or more rigid than walls of other materials
of related character.
Construction of Soundproof Rolock Partition.— Mortar should
not be too rich a mixture because of the absorption quality of
common brick. If too rich a mixture is used, it may dry too
rapidly and crack, which must be avoided.
Only old-fashioned lime plaster is recommended, because with
a “hard wall” or other special types of plaster, a metallic soilnd
is apt to develop, thus reducing to some degree the sound resist-
ance of the wall. Old-fashioned lime plaster is very economical
to use and bonds perfectly to the brick.
128
BRICK STRUCTURES
In computing quantities, allow 4 bricks per sq. ft. of
partition.
FURRING AND PLASTERING ON BRICK WALLS
In many cases the beautiful natural surface of the brickwork
may be taken advantage of for interior finish, either for the whole
interior of the building or for special rooms. The brick surface
may be laid in a simple or elaborate bond or effective special
designs may be worked out. In any case the advantage of a con-
tinuous surface of attractive brickwork for walls and engaged
Tig. 74. — Brick loggia and open porch with brick floor.
Corse , Architects.)
( Courtesy of Butler and
CONSTRUCTION OTHER THAN EXTERIOR WALLS 129
or independent column coverings is apparent. If fireproof
brick floors are used the ceiling may also be formed of exposed
brickwork.
Saving by Decorating Directly on the Brick.— In many build-
ings such as schools, and in much industrial work, it is possible
to reduce the cost of the building by omitting the plaster and dull
painting, enameling, or decorating the interior directly upon the
brick.
Plastering Direct on Brick. — Plaster can be applied directly
to a brick surface, without any chipping or other expensive
preparation of surface and with no uncertainty as to whether the
plaster will stay on.
Whether to apply plaster directly on brick or to a suitable lath
furred out from the walls is a problem to be governed by indi-
vidual circumstances. It is not merely a question of the capacity
of brickwork to take and hold plaster successfully. The possi-
bilities of either water penetration or condensation of atmospheric
moisture on the interior surface of exterior brick walls must also
be considered. Condensation appears on cold wall surfaces
when the air in contact with the wall is warmer and heavily laden
with moisture. Condensation is often mistaken for leakage
through walls, as it frequently appears in rainy weather after a
cold period has been followed by warm rains and when artificial
heat is not applied within the building. Condensation does not
trouble furred walls but may occasionally cause dampness on
the interior surface of walls plastered directly on masonry. This
danger is minimized by the use of Ideal hollow walls or other
types of cavity wall.
It is almost impossible under practical conditions for a well-
burned header to carry moisture along its entire length by
capillary attraction. Moisture can, however, be conducted
under severe conditions through a continuous mortar joint either
of cement or lime mortar.
In most types of the Ideal wall there is no continuous mortar
joint from front to back of the wall. (Where plaster is to be
applied direct, such continuous through mortar joints must be
avoided in case small sections of the wall are built solid for
various purposes.)
In most types of the Ideal wall there is also an additional safe-
guard in the fact that a slight steady circulation of air within
130
BRICK STRUCTURES
the cavities dries out any small amount of moisture that might
reach the portion of the header in the hollow space.
The properly constructed Ideal all-Rolok wall in Flemish bond
has established an enviable reputation for itself in many sections
of the country as a wall which can be confidently relied upon to
be thoroughly dry when plastered directly on the brick.
If in any locality it has been found by experience that walls of
hollow units do not need to be furred and lathed, then the various
types of Ideal walls used under the same conditions and with
the same grade of workmanship can be depended upon with much
greater confidence to be dry and furring can be omitted.
Waterproofed Walls in California Climate May Need No
Furring. — Highly successful results have been accomplished in
California and other parts of the country by waterproofing the
inside face of solid walls, or by dipping about half the length of
each header in Ideal walls in a waterproofing mixture of equal
parts of asphaltum and distillate, the waterproofed end of the
header being placed toward the inside of the wall. In that
climate walls so treated do not need to be furred, and the plaster-
ing may be placed directly on the surface of the brickwork.
This treatment is quite inexpensive.
Exterior Masonry Walls Should Generally Be Furred or
Waterproofed. — As a general safe rule, all types of exterior
masonry walls, of whatever material constructed, and whether
solid or hollow, should be furred, lathed, and plastered on the
inside surface to ensure nonpassage of moisture and to guard
against condensation. Satisfactory results are also often
o lined by waterproofing the inside surface.
his supercautious general recommendation is made to include
all-Rolok construction in Flemish bond also, even though a
multitude of structures have been built in that construction and
plastered directly on the brickwork, and in all that number not
more than half a dozen cases have been reported where traces of
moisture appeared on the inside face of the wall; that result was
found to be due in every instance to carelessness in construction.
Application of Heat -insulating Materials. — Where exceptional
resistance to the passage of heat through walls is demanded, as
may be the case in dwellings heated by gas, electricity, oil, or
other expensive fuels, solid brick or Ideal hollow brick walls can
be insulated in either of two ways:
CONSTRUCTION OTHER THAN EXTERIOR WALLS 131
Certain types of insulating materials, such as solid corkboard
IK or 2 in. thick, may be cemented directly to the inner surface
of the brick wall, using either a portland cement mortar, hot
pitch, or special mastic compounds recommended by the material
manufacturer. Plaster may then be applied directly to the
corkboard or other insulating materials where the manufacturer
so advises, or to a metal lath or welded wire reinforcing fabric
applied over the insulation.
The more common method is to nail an insulating board or
flexible insulating blanket over the furring strips before applying
the plaster base and plaster.
PORCHES, WALKS, AND GARDEN STRUCTURES OF BRICK
Porches and Terraces. — Brick-paved porches and terraces are
particularly charming with brick houses but are always appro-
priate with any type of building.
Porch floors of brick that are not laid on solid fill, like terraces,
may be economically constructed of reinforced brickwork as
described under Reinforced Brickwork for Structural Purposes,
page 88. Only one thickness of brick is required for the panels
between brick piers or deeper reinforced brick girders. The
brick may be laid in running bond or basket-weave pattern as
desired, by confining the reinforcing rod to the joints that run
through the patternwork.
Brick-paved porches are most economically built on a solid fill
of tamped earth or cinders brought to a suitable grade below the
finished grade of the floor. Construction is identical with that
described for walks.
Brick-paved Terraces. — Brick-paved terraces are laid on the
natural grade or upon a soil or cinder fill brought up to the
required level in the manner described below for the laying of
brick walks. Terraces and porches that are to be extensively
used for living purposes, as outdoor dining rooms, etc., should
preferably be laid on a concrete subbase with the surface sloping
away from the building at a grade of about 34 in. per ft. to assure
satisfactory drainage.
Terraces or porches requiring very smooth surfaces suitable for
dancing can be attractively created by laying brick in full mortar
joints on a concrete bed and subsequently grinding the surface
to a smooth finish with a terrazzo grinding machine. The brick
132
BRICK STRUCTURES
should preferably be laid in suitable patterns for heightened
decorative value, and may be placed either on edge or flat as the
requirements of the design indicate. Mortar joints of light or
contrasting color increase the beauty of the effect. Grinding
should be carried on only to a sufficient degree to take out the
CONSTRUCTION OTHER THAN EXTERIOR WALLS 133
minor roughnesses of the brick surface and mortar joints. When
finished, the floor may be filled with shellac and oiled or waxed,
if used on a porch, or may be left without treatment if exposed!
The resulting effect has the color and beauty of a rich Oriental
rug.
Outside Steps. Steps should be laid on a firm base. Treads
should never be less than 12 in. wide, or they may be dangerous
Iig. 77. -Door sill and step, brick flat.
when covered with ice and snow. Steps should pitch forward
with a slope of about in. per ft. The under surface of the
concrete base should never slope but be stepped off horizontally
or the concrete is likely to slide out of place. The concrete
should be thick enough to prevent it breaking. It may be
reinforced if necessary (Fig. 77).
Where the subbase is not firm for any reason, reinforced brick
construction may be employed economically.
Joints in steps should always be filled with cement mortar,
and pointed with a “thumb” joint, which is a broad, slightly con-
cave joint thoroughly rubbed with a steel jointing tool/ The
front of the treads should be laid of full-length headers. Half
b licks should not be used in this position. It is good practice
to give the face of the brick to be exposed a coat of raw linseed oil
134
BRICK STRUCTURES
immediately before laying, as this prevents mortar sticking to
the face of the brick.
Brick Walks. — Brick for this purpose should be hard burned.
Ask the manufacturer whether his bricks are suitable for this use.
Walks may be laid in one of two ways, either on sand or cinders
or on a concrete base, in the latter case with mortar or sand joints.
For those who prefer a walk to be a little irregular, perhaps
with grass growing up in the joints, the first-mentioned method
is recommended. Grass can easily be kept down if desired,
however, by mixing salt with the sand. The bricks may be laid
flat or on edge.
A method of laying walks in this manner is indicated above.
First excavate the soil to the depth of about 4 in. Lay a 1-in.
thickness of sand for the border bricks, which are placed on edge.
Then lay and tamp or roll a 2-in. bed of sand or cinders for the
rest of the walk, placing the bricks flat. It is important, espe-
cially in a clay soil, to drain the sand or cinder bed thoroughly.
If bricks are on edge the excavation should be proportionately
deeper. Leave about in. space between the bricks. As soon
as they are laid, fill the vertical joints by placing a layer of sand
on the walk and sweeping it into the joints with a broom. Leave
the sand on the walk for a few days, agitating it once or twice a
day, so that the joints will be completely filled. Tight mortar
joints may be used, however, as described below.
A concrete base will ensure the walk or terrace remaining rigid
and even. A lean 1:8 concrete should be used, 3 in. thick, laid
on a bed of cinders or sand, thoroughly drained. The brick
may be laid on a J^-in. setting bed of cement mortar or upon a
bed of sand just thick enough to straighten out the irregularities
of the rough concrete. The curb may be formed of concrete or
of brick on edge. The vertical joints may be sanded or filled
with mortar.
In the latter case the most satisfactory but most expensive
method is to trowel the joints carefully. A cheaper way is to
broom the joints full of a thin 1 :3 cement grout, but this has the
disadvantage of smearing the surface of the brick with mortar.
This may, however, be removed by going over the surface while
the mortar is soft with a scrubbing brush and water containing
not more than 5 per cent muriatic acid, afterwards removing
the acid by scrubbing again with clean water.
CONSTRUCTION OTHER THAN EXTERIOR WALLS 135
=
BRICK CAM ALSO BE LAID ON EDGE
THIS PATTERN MAYBE MADE BY LAYING BRICK FLAT
BRICK CAN ALSO BE LAID ON EDGE.
Fig. 78. — Typical patterns for brick-paved walks and terraces.
136
BRICK STRUCTURES
Another and better method is to pour the grout carefully into
the joints, wiping the brick clean before the mortar has set.
If bricks are laid with tight mortar joints, the walk should be
slightly crowned for drainage if on flat ground. If laid with sand
joints on concrete, the latter should have a slight crown.
Fig. 79. — An old serpentine garden wall 4 in. thick.
Number of Bricks in Walks. — If the walks are to be laid with
brick on edge, figure the number of bricks by finding the area
and reading the number of bricks required for a 4-in. wall, table
9, page 105, about 6 bricks per sq. ft.
If the bricks are laid flat, about 4 bricks per sq. ft. will be
required. For a walk 3 bricks wide, allow ^ cu. ft. sand, 2 in.
thick, per foot run of walk; 4 bricks wide, % cu. ft.; 5 bricks wide,
/4 CU. ft.
Garden Structures of Brick. — Brick posses the same qualities
of durability and beauty for outside uses as for the walls of the
CONSTRUCTION OTHER THAN EXTERIOR WALLS 13
l iG. 80.— Wall and gate of antique brickwork. (Courtesy of John Resell Pope,
Architect.)
138
BRICK STRUCTURES
home. Brick harmonizes well with any garden, formal or other-
wise. Creepers and vines cling well to it and do not cause it to
decay. Its beautiful colors and soft texture, forming a back-
ground for foliage and flowers look cool and inviting even in the
hottest sun.
Summerhouses, garden walls, seats, steps, pergolas, gateposts,
and walks form but a few of the instances where advantage may
be taken of the unrivaled beauty, permanence, and ultimate
economy of brickwork.
Garden Walls. — A brick wall is unexcelled either as a division
wall or to shelter plants in certain exposures.
Solid walls or 8-in. Ideal all-Rolok walls make charming walls
for the garden. A straight wall should be thickened to form
12- by 12- or 12- by 16-in. piers at intervals of about 10 to 12 ft.,
according to the height, to add stability to the wall. Offsets or
irregularities in the plan answer the same purpose. The wall
should extend below the frost line, but no footing is required.
Portland cement mortar should be used.
For a wall dividing the same property into two or more parts,
a wall 4 in. in thickness may be built in serpentine design (Fig.
79), the curves in the plan of the wall giving it the necessary
stability. The wall shown, 4 in. thick and about 8 ft. high, has
been standing over a century. It produces a variety of shady
and sunny surfaces.
Pier and panel walls using 4-in. panels are ideal for property
boundaries and garden walls where a sense of isolation or separa-
tion is desired. They are very
economical to build, occupy but
little space, and have all the rich
beauty of heavier walls.
Capping Garden Walls. — The wall
should be capped with a course of
brick on edge in a 1 : 3 portland ce-
ment mortar. An artistic touch
may be provided by placing two
courses of slate or tile below the
capping, projecting about 1 in. on
each side of the wall.
Pergola Posts; Gateposts. — Hollow piers or posts, either of
brick on edge or flat, make sightly and permanent supports for
INC
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SLATE
CONSTRUCTION OTHER THAN EXTERIOR WALLS 139
the pergola roof. The brick on edge posts should not be more
than 11- by 11-in., the flat brick posts 12- by 12-in. The interior
may be left hollow. Footings should extend below the frost line.
Gateposts and entrance posts may be built in the same manner,
the gate being secured by bolts with anchor ends extending far
enough into the post to take the strain, or passing entirely
through the post with a plain or ornamental washer on the oppo-
Fig. 81. — Modern and classic designs for garden seats employing a slab of
reinforced brickwork.
site side. Brickwork should be made solid and the pier large
enough to stand the lateral strain of the gate. A charming effect
may be secured by building a brick semicircular arch over the
gateway. There should be sufficient brickwork at the haunches
to resist the thrust of the arch. Wrought-iron gates, lamps,
strapwork, and other ornamental features are very effective
when used in combination with brick.
Garden Seats. — A simple garden seat can be very cheaply and
attractively built of reinforced brick in the following manner:
Upon a board of suitable dimensions lay enough brick to form the
top of a garden seat or bench, preferably about 16 in. wide and
140
BRICK STRUCTURES
as long as desired, up to 6 or 8 ft. maximum. Place the brick
lengthwise on the board, spacing the brick about hi. in each
direction, bill the joints partially with 1:1:6 cement-lime
mortar and then embed in each longitudinal mortar joint, about
K in. below the upper edge of the brick, a bi-in. reinforcing rod
of steel. Finish filling the mortar joints over the rods flush with
the brick surface. After 3 or 4 days, when the mortar has set,
tuin over the panel and mount it on two brick piers .spaced to
come under each end of the panel. The finished height of the
top surface should be not over 15 in. from the ground. The top
may be smooth finished by grinding and waxing, as described
for porches.
Other garden structures requiring horizontal self-supporting
members of this type, such as garden tables, small bridges over
streams, exedras, etc., may be readily constructed of reinforced
brickwork in the manner indicated.
Swimming Pools of Brick Construction. — Swimming pools,
especially those located outdoors, are subject to the damaging
influences of soil exposure, which may be acid or alkali, to alter-
nate wetting and drying as the pool may be filled or drained, and
to frost action in the cold season.
Brick has proved its ability to withstand these several influ-
ences without damage better than any other material.
Advantages of Brick Construction.— Building the bottom and
side walls of the pool of brickwork is a simple performance
and can easily be so supervised as to ensure a sound structure and
subsequent satisfactory performance for an indefinite time.
Reinforcing rods may be built into the brickwork, if necessary,
to give it greater lateral strength.
Form work is unnecessary with brick and the flexibility of the
small units makes it easy to work out decorative panels, molds,
or other architectural ornamentation.
Brick may be used merely for the structural backing of the
walls and floor of swimming pools or may also be used for the
inside facing, for copings, and for other decorative details.
Brick Pools Easily Made Watertight.— Shrinkage cracks
seldom develop in solid brickwork embedded in the soil. The
multiplicity of the units takes up ordinary strains without
developing cracks that would impair the effectiveness of water-
proofing. The recommended construction is to build the struc-
CONSTRUCTION OTHER THAN EXTERIOR WALLS 141
tural side walls of solid brick masonry with cement plaster or
membrane waterproofing on the exterior (the latter being pre-
ferred unless a second membrane is used on the inner face). The
waterproofing should be carried through the side walls at the level
of the bottom of the pool and across the floor of the pool, which
should also be of brick laid on edge on a bed of portland cement
mortar. Floor brickwork may be reinforced with steel rods in
the mortar joints it the soil beneath does not have uniform bearing
power.
A second membrane waterproofing may De employed on the
inner face of the side walls if the pool is to be lined with tile or
another withe ot brick, and this membrane should be joined to
the floor membrane or carried completely across the subfloor,
as the case may be.
Lining of Swimming Pools.— Smooth-faced brick may be
employed to line the pool, or the inner membrane may receive
ceramic tile set in mortar, whichever may be preferred.
SUGGESTIONS FOR DECORATIVE TREATMENT OF BRICKWORK
In the following pages are a selected group of illustrations
chosen to suggest the infinite range of textures, colors, patterns,
and design treatments that may be developed in brickwork.
T . here ' vas developed in Chicago a type of brickwork called
skintled, that gave many new effects to brickwork surfaces.
One type left the mortar joint uncut, with the joint extending
beyond the surface of the wall. Other types were evolved by
irregular placing of the exterior course of brick, which at a
distance resembled stonework. The use of clinker brick, swollen
and distorted by excessive heat in the kiln, producing a rustic
effect, has been used in structures architecturally suited to
that style.
The painting or whitewashing of brickwork has a considerable
vogue, especially in the warmer climates where Spanish archi-
tecture is popular. Special paints are made for this purpose.
A thin grout of white portland cement and water makes a
satisfactory and quite permanent coating. Where whitewash
is used it is expected that weathering will gradually wear away
the coating, exposing the natural color of the brick in spots.
This gives the effect of age. Examples of several of these types
are .shown.
142
BRICK STRUCTURES
BARBECUE FOR OUTDOOR LIVING
The barbecue and outdoor fireplace, having its initial popu-
larity in the warmer climates, has extended to all parts of the
country. It is an all-year convenience and joy on the Pacific
Coast, while in the northern and eastern parts of the United
States it is none the less popular during the warm months.
Not infrequently is the barbecue or outdoor fireplace built
by the owner, without previous experience as a mason. While
the building of a plumb and true wall is the job of an expert
bricklayer, the smaller structures, where no important stresses
are involved, may be done by a mechanically minded novice.
However, it is recommended that a contractor be employed.
All the metal equipment necessary for these outdoor grills is
available, ready to build into the masonry. It may usually be
obtained through a building-supply dealer.
Two examples of these structures for outdoor living are shown
with construction details. A simple fireplace, planned upon the
same principle as the indoor fireplace, is largely ornamental for
garden decoration. The open fire may be used for broiling meat
and toasting. The barbecue is capable of cooking the usual
outdoor feast.
CONSTRUCTION OTHER THAN EXTERIOR WALLS 143
TEXTURES IN SKINTLED BRICKWORK
Fig. 82 . — Detail of skintled brickwork. Plus dimensions indicate projection
beyond wall line. Minus dimensions indicate set-back from wall line.
Fig. 83. Unusually coarse design of skintled brickwork.
144
BRICK STRUCTURES
tic. 85. Moderate skintied pattern and one of most pleasing of this novel type
of brickwork. Figure 80 shows section of wall built in this design.
Fig. 84— This effect is produced by irregular laying of brick and uncut morta*
joint.
CONSTRUCTION OTHER THAN EXTERIOR WALLS 145
' IO 86.— Here is a modified and one of the most attractive of the skintled-type
surface The bricks projecting slightly from the wall line produce shadows that
add to the interest in the structure. ( Courtesy of Elmo C. Lowe, Designer )
146
BRICK STRUCTURES
Fig. 87. — An especially good example of painted brickwork. With pattern in upper part of gable and brick outline showing
through the white coating, an attractive texture is obtained. ( Courtesy of G. Forster , Architect.)
CONSTRUCTION OTHER THAN EXTERIOR WALLS 147
Fig. 88. A rough brick is layed with alternate stretcher and header courses with
a soldier course at the base. Note brick window sill inclining outward.
148
BRICK STRUCTURES
J ig. 89. — Brick nogging between timbers is painted white to produce an attractive
effect.
CONSTRUCTION OTHER THAN EXTERIOR WALLS 149
i ig. yu.~
linker brick are used in this wall appropriately in connection with
heavy timber lintels. ( Courtesy of Frank Forster, Architect.)
150
BRICK STRUCTURES
Fig. 91. — Deep-raked joints and unusual pattern of projecting headers combine to produce an interesting doorway, porch,
and steps.
CONSTRUCTION OTHER THAN EXTERIOR WALLS 151
carved frieze, and unusual window arches.
152
BRICK STRUCTURES
Fig. 93. — Skintled brickwork with uncut mortar joint is featured in this house.
Note the thin tiles at the bases of the door arch.
154
BRICK STRUCTURES
Fig. 95. — Here is a good example of all-Rolok Ideal wall. All brick laid on
edge is in Flemish bond pattern.
CONSTRUCTION OTHER THAN EXTERIOR WALLS 155
ig. Gateway and patio with brick in skintled de*
tt~ r j e -?L. aie a C * . saw tooth ’ ” and header courses are of flush jo
n • Ait ken, Architect.)
Alternating
{Courtesy of
156
BRICK STRUCTURES
Fig. 97. — Practical brick barbecue and range with Dutch oven and wood
storage. The complete range, oven, and crane are obtainable as accessories,
ready to install. ( Design and illustrations by courtesy of Donley Brothers Company ,
Cleveland , Ohio.)
CONSTRUCTION OTHER THAN EXTERIOR WALLS 157
Fig. 98. Plan of barbecue, illustrated in Fig. 97,
Grated
slide and
grates
% Grate
^ slide
±20J^-23U
PLAN
Fig. 99— Brick or stone may be used to build this outdoor fireplace For th ,
DelZ'n I r !/ C v7°/ ,™ U ! >e mUch simp,er and will better withstand ' the heat
Design and illustrations by courtesy of Donley Brothers ComjHiny, Clereland OhTo )
158
BRICK STRUCTURES
Fig. 100. — Small range and grill, easily constructed by use of ready-to-install
accessories. A novel oven of sheet metal may be built into this assembly, as
illustrated in smaller cut. ( Courtesy of Donley Brothers Company , Cleveland ,
Ohio.)
CHAPTER V
REFERENCE TABLES FOR DESIGNING
AND ESTIMATING BRICKWORK
When designing or estimating brickwork, the following refer-
ence tables will prove useful. Here will be found coursing
tables, a table of weights of brick walls, and a series of tables
showing the quantities of brick and mortar in typical forms of
brick construction.
It will be noted that labor estimates are not included for
the reason that such tables, even though conservatively developed
and sometimes useful to the inexperienced estimator, are apt
to be taken too literally without due allowance for varying
conditions of labor, local customs, and the special requirements
of the job at hand.
Experienced contractors make daily checks on the work of
their masons and keep a constant record of bricklayers’ helpers’
and laborers’ time on all types of work. Only upon such data
should labor estimates be based.
159
o. of
urses
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
13
14
15
1G
17
18
19
20
21
22
23
24
25
2G
27
28
29
30
31
32
33
34
35
30
37
38
39
40
41
42
43
44
45
46
47
48
49
50
60
70
80
90
BRICK STRUCTURES
[ght of Solid and Ideal Brickwork by Cox
ted on Standard Brick 2*4 by 3% by 8 in.
Bottom of Mortar Joint to Bottom of Mortar Jc
joints
56- in. joints
Brick
sm edge
4 V
834'
h'
4*/
1' 8V
2 '
2' 4V
2' 9"
3' l]*'
•J ‘ 4
93. s'
l H*
,)->V
4' 9 3 4 "
5' 156"
5' 6"
.V Id's'
6' 2 *4"
G' 65* "
6 ' 10 './
T 25*'
r 63 4 '
r 107 ^'
8' 3"
8' 7 H'
8 ' ii v'
9' 3 ?. s'
9' 1W
9' 1 1 s '
10' 354'
10' 7V
11 '
11 '
11 '
12 '
436'
8V'
4 1 1
12' 8V
13' 3-
13' 4 J' 8 '
13' 9"
14' IV
14' 5 1 4 '
14' 9V
1 1 2 "
15' 5 V
15' 9 3 4
16' IV
16' 6"
16' 10> 8 "
17' 2j 4
20' 7 V
24' 54
27' 6"
30' 1134"
34' 4»r*
Brick
flat
Brick
on edge
Brick
flat
Brick
on edge
254"
4*4"
2 V"
456"
53 2"
8V'
o54"
85 4 "
83 i"
1'
54"
85 s"
1'
136"
11"
1'
5"
1132"
1'
536"
1'
154"
r
934"
1'
25s"
1'
936"
1'
4' >"
2'
134"
1'
534"
2'
234"
1'
7' 4 "
2'
53 4 "
1'
8*4"
2'
65 s"
1'
10"
2'
10"
1,
11"
2'
11"
2'
54"
3'
2V"
2
1 K
3'
356"
2'
3 ’2"
3'
6*4"
2'
454"
3'
754"
2'
6j 4 "
3'
10*4"
2'
75s"
4'
36"
2'
9"
4'
3"
2'
10*2"
4'
4 34"
2'
11V
4'
7*4"
3'
l 3 s"
4'
8‘V'
3'
2 > 2 "
4'
11 V'
3'
4 * 4 "
5'
1 v"
3'
5 1 4 "
5'
334"
3'
73 s"
5'
55s"
3'
8"
5'
8"
3'
10"
5'
10"
3'
H)3 4 "
6'
V"
4'
V"
6'
2 3 s"
4'
1 ‘2"
6'
4*4"
4'
3? 4 "
6'
6 3 4 "
4'
4J4"
6'
854"
4'
65b"
6'
1136"
4'
7"
7'
1"
4'
936"
7'
336"
4'
934"
7'
5*4"
5'
5s"
7'
73s"
5'
3 2 "
7'
9*4"
5'
334"
8'
34"
5'
3 *4"
8'
1 34"
5'
63s"
8'
4-V'
5'
6"
8'
6"
5'
9"
8'
9"
5'
83 4 "
8'
10 V"
5'
11V"
9'
Us"
5'
1 13 2"
9'
2*4"
6'
254"
9'
554"
6'
2 »4"
9'
6V"
6'
55s"
9'
1036"
<i'
5"
9'
11"
6'
836"
10'
232"
6'
734"
10'
334"
6'
115 s"
10'
656"
6'
1036"
10'
734"
7'
2 V"
10'
11V"
7'
l *4"
10'
1154"
7'
53s"
11'
356"
7'
4"
11'
4"
7'
8"
1 1'
8"
7'
6V"
11'
834"
7'
10J4"
12'
56"
7'
9* 2"
12'
34"
8'
154"
12'
454"
8'
*4"
12'
454"
8'
45s"
12'
9*6"
8'
3"
12'
9"
8'
73a"
13'
134"
8'
554"
13'
IV"
8'
105 s"
13'
«»5s"
8'
8' 2"
13'
o> 2 "
9'
1*4"
13'
1054"
8'
11 1 4"
13'
954"
9'-
■ 436"
14'
256"
9'
2"
14'
2"
9'
7"
14'
7"
0'
43 4 "
14'
631"
9'
934"
14' 1156"
9'
73 2 "
14'
103 2 "
10'
54"
15'
354"
9'
io» 4"
15'
254"
10'
354"
15'
8*6"
10'
1"
15'
7"
10'
63i"
16'
V"
nr
3? 4 "
15' 1134"
10'
956"
16'
4 7 6"
10'
6*4"
16'
3*2"
11'
34"
16'
9*4"
10'
934"
16'
754"
11'
3*4"
17'
156"
1 1'
17'
11'
6"
17'
6"
11'
2V"
17'
4V"
11'
8X4"
17'
105s"
11'
5' 2 "
17'
834"
11'
1154"
18'
254"
13'
10"
21'
3"
14'
43 2 "
21'
10*4"
16'
34"
24'
934 "
16'
9*4"
25'
634"
18'
4"
28'
4"
19'
2"
29'
2"
20'
7' i"
31'
1032"
21'
654"
32'
954"
22'
11"
35'
5"
23'
1134"
36'
536"
5
REFERENCE TABLES FOR DESIGNING BRICKWORK 161
Table 5. Quantities of Brick and Mortar in Footings, Piers, and
Chimneys
Footings— Quantities for 100 Lin. Ft.
Construction
Number
of brick
Mortar,
cu. ft.
8-in. wall
2.272
39
i
12-in. wall
2,812
48
uzmmsm
^ A
r*-_ V//J
16-in. wall.
4.592
78
.i WW//MM
^ — 2 ; 8~ — 4
Piers — Quantities for 10-ft. Height
8- by 12-in. solid
12- by 12-in. solid
12- by 16-in. solid
10? 4- by 10?4-in. hollow, brick laid
edge
124
2K
185
247
113
3 H
4 y 2
162
BRICK STRUCTURES
Table 5. — Quantities of Brick and Mortar in Footings, Piers, and
Chimneys. — ( Continued )
Chimneys — Quantities for 10-ft. Height
NUMBER OF FACING BRICK IN SOLID WALLS
The first part of the table below gives the number of facing
brick in straight running bond per square foot of wall for different
joint thicknesses. It must be apparent that an additional
number of facing brick will be required for various bonds, in
proportion to the number of through headers used. The
second part of the table, therefore, gives the percentages to be
added to the number of facing brick in running bond.
REFERENCE TABLES FOR DESIGNING BRICKWORK 163
Table 6. Number of Facing Brick in Running Bond per Square Foot
of Wall
Joint, in. . . .
No. of brick
H
H
H
Vi
Vs
7Vi
7
6 H
6V
5 H
H
5 %
Percentages Added to Number of Brick Given Above for Various Bonds
Common (full header course every 5th course) . 20 % (%)
Common (full header course every 6th course). 16%% (%)
Common (full header course every 7th course) . 14%% (%)
English or English cross (full headers every 6th
course ) 16%% (%)
Flemish (full headers every 6th course) 5%% (% 8 )
Double header (two headers and a stretcher
every 6th course) 8%% (% 2 )
Double header (two headers and a stretcher
every 5th course) 10 % (% 0 )
Table 7.— Average Weight of Solid Brick Walls
Brick Assumed to Weigh 4% lb. each. %-in. Joints Filled with Mortar
Area, sq. ft.
1
10
20
30
40
50
60
70
80
90
100
200
300
400
500
600
700
800
900
1,000
4-in. wall, lb.
36.782
368
736
1,103
1,471
1,839
2,207
2,575
2,943
3,310
3,678
7,356
11,035
14,713
18,391
22,069
25,747
29,426
33,104
36,782
8-in. wall, lb.
78.808
788
1,576
2,364
3,152
3,940
4,728
5,517
6,305
7,093
7,881
15,762
23,642
31,523
39,404
47,285
55,166
63,046
70,927
78,808
12-in. wall, lb.
115.414
1,154
2,308
3,462
4,617
5,771
6,925
8,079
9,233
10,387
11,541
23,083
34,624
46,166
57,707
69,249
80,790
92,331
103,873
115,414
164
BRICK STRUCTURES
—
T able 8. — Solid Exterior Walls in Flemish, English, and English
Cross Bonds — >2-in. Joints, Partly Filled
Area of
8-in.
wall
12-in. wall
16-in.
wall
wall,
No. of
Mortar,
No. of
Mortar,
No. of
Mortar,
sq. ft.
bricks
cu. ft.
bricks
cu. ft.
bricks
cu. ft.
1
12.320
.195
18.866
.254
25.411
.313
10
124
2
189
3
255
34
20
247
4
378
509
6 4
30
370
6
566
8
763
94
40
493
8
755
10M
1,017
13
50
617
10
944
13
1,271
16
60
740
12
1,132
16
1,525
19
70
863
14
1,321
18
1,779
22
80
986
16
1,510
21
2,033
25
90
1,109
18
1 ,698
23
2,288
29
100
1,233
20
1,887
26
2,542
32
200
2,465
39
3,774
51
5,083
63
300
3,697
59
5,660
77
7,624
94
400
! 4,929
78
7,547
102
10,165
126
500
6,161
98
9,434
127
12,706
157
600
7,393
117
11,320
153
15,248
189
700
8,625
137
13,207
178
17,789
220
800
9,857
156
15,094
204
20,330
251
900
11,089
175
16,980
229
22,871
283
1,000
12,321
195
18,867
255
25,412
314
2,000
24,642
390
37,733
509
50,824
628
3,000
36,963
584
56,599
763
76,236
942
4,000
49,284
779
75,466
1,017
101,648
1,256
5,000
61,605
973
94,332
1,272
127,059
1,570
6,000
73,926
1,168
113,198
1,526
152,471
1,884
7,000
86,247
1,363
132,065
1,780
177,883
2 , 198
8,000
98,567
1 ,557
150,931
2,035
203,295
2,512
9,000
110,888
1,752
169,797
2,289
228,706
2,826
10,000
123,209
1,947
188,664
2,543
254,118
3.140
REFERENCE TABLES FOR DESIGNING BRICKWORK IGo
1 able 9. Solid Walls in All Bonds — )^-in. Joints, All Joint's Filled
with Mortar
Area o
4-in. wall
8-in. wall
12-in. wall
16-in. wall
wall,
sq. ft.
No. of
Mortar
No. of
Mortar,
No. of
Mortar,
No. of
Morta r,
bricks
cu. ft.
bricks
cu. ft.
bricks
cu. ft.
bricks
cu. ft.
1
6.16C
.075
12.320
. 195
18.481
.314
24.641
.433
10
62
1
124
2
185
sy
247
4}4
20
124
2
247
4
370
6J4
493
9
30
185
370
6
555
9}4
740
13
40
247
3H
493
8
740
13
986
17 y 2
50
309
4
617
10
925
16
1,233
22
60
370
5
740
12
1,109
19
1,479
26
70
432
5M
863
14
1,294
22
1 ,725
31
80
493
986
16
1 ,479
25
1,972
35
90
555
7
1,109
18
1,664
28
2,218
39
100
617
8
1,233
20
1,849
32
2,465
44
200
1,233
15
2,465
39
3,697
63
4,929
87
300
1,849
23
3,697
59
5,545
94
7,393
130
400
2,465
30
4,929
78
7,393
126
9,857
173
500
3,081
38
6,161
98
9,241
157
12,321
217
600
3,697
46
7,393
117
11,089
189
14,786
260
700
4,313
53
8,625
137
12,937
220
17,250
303
800
4,929
61
9,857
156
14,786
251
19,714
347
900
5,545
68
11 ,089
175
16,634
283
22,178
390
1,000
6,161
76
12,321
195
18,482
314
24,642
433
2,000
12,321
151
24,642
390
36,963
628
49,284
866
3,000
18,482
227
36,963
584
55,444
942
73,926
1,299
4,000
24, 642
302
49,284
779
73,926
1,255
98,567
1,732
5,000
30,803
377
61,605
973
92,407
1 ,569
123,209
2,165
6,000
36,963
453
73,926
1,168
110,888
1,883
147,851
2,599
7,000
43,124
528
86,247
1,363
129,370:
2,197
172,493
3,032
8,000
49,284
604
98,567
1 ,557
147,851 :
2,511
197,124:
3,465
9,000
55,444
679
110,888
1,752
166,332!
2,825 :
221,776:
3,898
10,000
61,605
755
123,209
1,947
184,813;
3,139 :
246,418
4,331
166
BRICK STRUCTURES
INDEX
A
All-Rolok walls, construction of, 82
construction of 8 and 12 in. (com-
mon bond), 82
construction of 8 and 12 in.
(Flemish bond), 83
Anchors, for floor and roof, 45
for joists, 47
for veneer work, 109
Arches, 105
B
Barbecues, 142, 156-158
Basement details, 51
paving, 55
walls, condensation on, 58
waterproofing of, 56
Bearing and non-bearing walls,
partitions in, 126, 127
types of, 59-62
Bonds in brick masonry, 22
common, 24
double stretcher, 27
English, 28
Flemish, 27
running, 24
Brick, absorption, 4
composition of, 1
properties of, 3
selection of, 14
strength of, 3
in relation to strength in
masonry, 7
Brick masonry, 14
decorative treatment of, 141
durability of, 10
fire resistance and rating of, 9
foundation of, for stucco, 107
joints in, 30
Brick masonry, properties of, 3
resistance of, to sound transmis-
sion, 13
strength of, 6
thermal resistance of, 10
weather resistance of, 9
Brick veneer on frame construction,
109, 110
Brickwork, decorative treatment of.
141, 143-155
reinforced, 88-92
C
Calking, 122-126
Chases in brick walls, 67
Chimneys and fireplaces, construc-
tion of, 118-121
design of, 112-117
Codes, building, should permit 8 in.-
walls, 63
Condensation on basement walls, 58
Construction equipment, 42
freezing weather, 47-50
procedure, 44-47
Curtain and panel walls, 65
D
Door openings, construction of,
99-107
in hollow walls, 71-76
Dry walls, 21
E
Economy walls, 4 in. -pier and panel
type, 84-88
Efflorescence and wet walls, pre-
vention of, 38-42
Estimating and designing, reference
tables for, 160-166
167
168
BRICK STRUCTURES
F
Fire walls, 94
Fireplaces and chimneys, design of,
112-117
construction of, 118-121
Fireproofing steel with brick, 93, 94
Firestopping with brick, 95-97
Flashings and calking, 122-126
Floors of brick, arch type, 91
reinforced, 91
Footings, construction of, 51-53
drainage of, 54
Foundations, 51
Furring and plastering, 68, 128-131
G
Garden structures, 136-141
Grounds for attaching woodwork, 67
H
Hollow walls, construction of, 70-84
I
Ideal walls, 69-84
Insulation of brick walls, 12
basement walls, against condensa-
tion, 58
J
Joint in brickwork, 30-37
L
Lime, slaking of, 18
Lintels, 104, 105
M
Materials used in brick masonry, 14
Mortar, colors, 17
making of, 19
patent and mason’s, 20
selection and mixing of, 16
O
Openings in brick walls, construc-
tion of, 99
P
Parapet walls, 97-99
Partitions of brick, 126-128
Party w alls, 95
Plastering and furring, 68, 128-131
Porches, 131
R
Reference tables for designing and
estimating, 159-166
Reinforced brickw ork, 88-92
Rolok-Bak walls, construction of,
76-82
construction of 12 in. (standard
and heavy duty), 81
S
Soundproof partitions, 126-128
Spandrel walls, flashing of, 126
Steps, 133
Storage bins and silos, 89
Stucco on brick, 107
Swfimming pools, 140, 141
T
Terraces, 131
V
Veneer construction, 109, 110
W
Walks, 134r-136
Walls, all-ltolok, 82-84
8 and 12 in. common bond, 82
8 and 12 in. Flemish bond, 83
bearing and non-bearing types of,
63-65
curtain and panel, 65
INDEX
109
Walls, economy, 4 in. pier and panel
type, 84-88
fire, 94
garden, 138
hollow (ideal), CO
openings, construction of, 99
parapet, 97-99
party, 95
Kolok-Bak, construction of, 76-82
construction of 12 in. (stand-
ard and heavy duty), 81
Walls, solid, 60
veneer of brick, 109, 110
Waterproofing basement walls, 56-
58
Wet walls, efflorescence and preven-
tion of, 38-41
Window openings, construction of,
99-107
in hollow walls, 71
Working with other trades, 66
Workmanship, standards of, 63-64
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